Ottoman History: 1821 - 1838
War came to an end in 1821 with the Peace of Bucharest. The river Pruth was agreed as the frontier between the two countries and Walachia and Moldavia returned to Turkey.
The Greeks of Morea now rose in rebellion. It was put down but England, France and Russia formed an alliance. They destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet at Nevarin and Russia seized Walachia and Moldavia once more. The fortress of Calas, Ibrael, Isakchi, Tolchi, Machin and Silistre were lost and Russian forces advanced as far as Edirne and the eastern region of Anatolia. The Peace of Edirne ended the war with large parts of Anatolia abandoned to the Russians. In 1830 Turkey accepted the establishment of an independent Greek Empire.
Most manifestations of decline were only continuations and elaborations of earlier conditions. In the later Ottoman period, however, a new factor of decline was added: the weakness of the central government resulted in the loss of control of most of the provinces to the local ruling notables, called ayan or derebeyis ("lords of the valley") in Anatolia and klephts or hayduks in Europe, who took more or less permanent control of large areas, creating a situation that in many ways resembled European feudalism much more than the traditional Ottoman timar system ever did.
In the Balkans and Anatolia local rulers solidified their positions by taking advantage of currents of local nationalism that were arising among the Balkan Christians. The notables formed private armies of mercenaries and slaves, which they sometimes used to provide important contributions to the Ottoman armies in return for recognition of their autonomy by the sultans. These rulers were able to exercise almost complete authority, collecting taxes for themselves and sending only nominal payments to the treasury, thus further increasing its problems.
France now occupied Algeria. Mehmet Ali Pasha, the Governor of Egypt, rebelled and advanced as far as Kutahia Sultan Mahmoud asked Russia for help and this was agreed in 1833. As part of the agreement Mehmet Ali Pasha was made Governor of Syria and Governorship of Adana was abandoned to Ibrahim Pasha.
Sunday, August 19, 2007
Ottoman History: 1710 - 1820
Ottoman History: 1710 - 1820
In 1710-11 it fought Russia again, and at the Treaty of the Pruth (1711) it regained some territories previously lost. The war of 1714-18 with Venice and Austria was concluded by the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718); and three wars with Russia and Austria, in 1736-39, 1768-74, and 1787-92, culminated in the treaties of Belgrade (1739), Küçük Kaynarca (1774), and Jassy (1792). As a result of these wars, the Ottomans lost Hungary, the Banat of Temesvár region, Transylvania, and Bukovina, establishing their European boundary on the Danube, where it had been early in the 16th century.
Three wars with Russia and Austria, in 1736-39, 1768-74, and 1787-92, culminated in the treaties of Belgrade (1739), Küçük Kaynarca (1774), and Jassy (1792). As a result of these wars, the Ottomans lost Hungary, the Banat of Temesvár region, Transylvania, and Bukovina, establishing their European boundary on the Danube, where it had been early in the 16th century.
Sultan Ahmed III (ruled 1703-30) built several lavish summer residences on the Bosporus and the Golden Horn (an inlet that forms part of the harbour of Istanbul), and members of his immediate entourage built similarly lavish houses, holding frequent garden parties in imitation of the pleasures of Versailles. The sultan and his ministers were no longer confined behind the walls of the Topkapi palace
Beginning in the so-called Tulip Period - Lale Devri (1717-30), some Ottomans under the influence of the grand vizier Ibrahim Pasa began to dress like Europeans, and the palace began to imitate European court life and pleasures. Growing tulips became an obsession with rich and poor alike, signifying Westernization, and the flower gave its name to the period. In 1727 Turkish-language books were printed for the first time in the empire, by a Hungarian convert who took the name Ibrahim Müteferrika.
In 1723, during war with Persia, parts of Iran close to the Iraq boundary were annexed to Ottoman territories and the Peace of Hemedan was signed in 1727. Hemedan and Tebriz were soon lost to the Shah, however, and the Patrona Riot broke out in Istanbul. Ibrahim Pasha was slaughtered and Ahmed the Third dethroned from his sultanate.
The most successful and lasting Ottoman military reform during this time came in the navy, which was modernized by the grand admiral Gazi Hasan Pasa (served 1770-89) with the support and encouragement of the sultan Abdülhamid I (ruled 1774-89); this success came largely because the Ottoman naval establishment was devastated in 1770 at the Battle of Çesme by a Russian fleet that had sailed from the Baltic Sea, and there was none of the inbred resistance that stifled significant reforms elsewhere. Important reforms introduced into the army under the grand vizier Halil Hamid Pasa (served 1782-85), with the help of Western technicians, were limited to new corps specially created for the purpose. The bulk of the Ottoman army remained unchanged and therefore was more equipped to suppress reform at home than to challenge modern Western armies.
These 18th-century reform efforts culminated during the reign of Selim III (ruled 1789-1807), often considered the originator of modern reform in the Ottoman Empire. While still a prince, Selim developed plans for modernizing the Ottoman army. He came to the throne during the 1787-92 war with Austria and Russia and had to postpone serious reform efforts until its completion. Selim's early efforts to modernize the Janissary corps created such opposition that thereafter he concentrated on creating a new European-style army called the nizam-i cedid ("new order"), using modern weapons and tactics developed in Europe. This new force, never numbering more than 10,000 active soldiers, was trained in Istanbul and in a number of Anatolian provincial centres by officers and military experts sent by the different European powers that were competing for the sultan's support. In order to avoid disrupting the established Ottoman institutions, it was financed by an entirely new treasury, called the irad-i cedid ("new revenue"), whose revenues came from taxes imposed on previously untaxed sources and from the confiscation of some timars whose holders were not fulfilling their military and administrative duties to the state. Under the guidance of European technicians, factories were erected to manufacture modern weapons and ammunition, and technical schools were opened to train Ottoman officers. Limited efforts also were made to rationalize the Ottoman administrative machinery, but largely along traditional lines. The older military corps, however, remained intact and hostile to the new force, and Selim was therefore compelled to limit its size and use.
By 1812 the Ottomans had lost all their possessions on the northern coast of the Black Sea, from the Romanian principalities to the Caucasus, including Bessarabia, southern Ukraine, and the Crimea (the soldiers of which had provided the strongest element in the Ottoman army during the 17th century). In addition, the Ottomans were compelled to allow the Russians and Austrians to intervene legally on behalf of the sultan's Christian subjects, increasing European influence in internal Ottoman affairs.
In 1710-11 it fought Russia again, and at the Treaty of the Pruth (1711) it regained some territories previously lost. The war of 1714-18 with Venice and Austria was concluded by the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718); and three wars with Russia and Austria, in 1736-39, 1768-74, and 1787-92, culminated in the treaties of Belgrade (1739), Küçük Kaynarca (1774), and Jassy (1792). As a result of these wars, the Ottomans lost Hungary, the Banat of Temesvár region, Transylvania, and Bukovina, establishing their European boundary on the Danube, where it had been early in the 16th century.
Three wars with Russia and Austria, in 1736-39, 1768-74, and 1787-92, culminated in the treaties of Belgrade (1739), Küçük Kaynarca (1774), and Jassy (1792). As a result of these wars, the Ottomans lost Hungary, the Banat of Temesvár region, Transylvania, and Bukovina, establishing their European boundary on the Danube, where it had been early in the 16th century.
Sultan Ahmed III (ruled 1703-30) built several lavish summer residences on the Bosporus and the Golden Horn (an inlet that forms part of the harbour of Istanbul), and members of his immediate entourage built similarly lavish houses, holding frequent garden parties in imitation of the pleasures of Versailles. The sultan and his ministers were no longer confined behind the walls of the Topkapi palace
Beginning in the so-called Tulip Period - Lale Devri (1717-30), some Ottomans under the influence of the grand vizier Ibrahim Pasa began to dress like Europeans, and the palace began to imitate European court life and pleasures. Growing tulips became an obsession with rich and poor alike, signifying Westernization, and the flower gave its name to the period. In 1727 Turkish-language books were printed for the first time in the empire, by a Hungarian convert who took the name Ibrahim Müteferrika.
In 1723, during war with Persia, parts of Iran close to the Iraq boundary were annexed to Ottoman territories and the Peace of Hemedan was signed in 1727. Hemedan and Tebriz were soon lost to the Shah, however, and the Patrona Riot broke out in Istanbul. Ibrahim Pasha was slaughtered and Ahmed the Third dethroned from his sultanate.
The most successful and lasting Ottoman military reform during this time came in the navy, which was modernized by the grand admiral Gazi Hasan Pasa (served 1770-89) with the support and encouragement of the sultan Abdülhamid I (ruled 1774-89); this success came largely because the Ottoman naval establishment was devastated in 1770 at the Battle of Çesme by a Russian fleet that had sailed from the Baltic Sea, and there was none of the inbred resistance that stifled significant reforms elsewhere. Important reforms introduced into the army under the grand vizier Halil Hamid Pasa (served 1782-85), with the help of Western technicians, were limited to new corps specially created for the purpose. The bulk of the Ottoman army remained unchanged and therefore was more equipped to suppress reform at home than to challenge modern Western armies.
These 18th-century reform efforts culminated during the reign of Selim III (ruled 1789-1807), often considered the originator of modern reform in the Ottoman Empire. While still a prince, Selim developed plans for modernizing the Ottoman army. He came to the throne during the 1787-92 war with Austria and Russia and had to postpone serious reform efforts until its completion. Selim's early efforts to modernize the Janissary corps created such opposition that thereafter he concentrated on creating a new European-style army called the nizam-i cedid ("new order"), using modern weapons and tactics developed in Europe. This new force, never numbering more than 10,000 active soldiers, was trained in Istanbul and in a number of Anatolian provincial centres by officers and military experts sent by the different European powers that were competing for the sultan's support. In order to avoid disrupting the established Ottoman institutions, it was financed by an entirely new treasury, called the irad-i cedid ("new revenue"), whose revenues came from taxes imposed on previously untaxed sources and from the confiscation of some timars whose holders were not fulfilling their military and administrative duties to the state. Under the guidance of European technicians, factories were erected to manufacture modern weapons and ammunition, and technical schools were opened to train Ottoman officers. Limited efforts also were made to rationalize the Ottoman administrative machinery, but largely along traditional lines. The older military corps, however, remained intact and hostile to the new force, and Selim was therefore compelled to limit its size and use.
By 1812 the Ottomans had lost all their possessions on the northern coast of the Black Sea, from the Romanian principalities to the Caucasus, including Bessarabia, southern Ukraine, and the Crimea (the soldiers of which had provided the strongest element in the Ottoman army during the 17th century). In addition, the Ottomans were compelled to allow the Russians and Austrians to intervene legally on behalf of the sultan's Christian subjects, increasing European influence in internal Ottoman affairs.
Ottoman History: 1645 - 1710
Ottoman History: 1645 - 1710
In the East, anarchy in Iran was brought to an end by Shah 'Abbas I, who not only restored Iranian power but also conquered Iraq (1624) and threatened to take the entire Ottoman Empire. Though Murad IV was able to retake Iraq (1638), Iran remained a major threat.
In 1645 the Castle of Hania on the island of Crete was lost to the Venetians, as was a large part of the island. Following this the Venetians attacked the coastal areas of Turkey with their fleet. Sultan Ibrahim was dethroned and his son Mehmed the Fourth took his place. Some sections of the Sultan's Bodyguard in Istanbul rebelled, while further rebellions were provoked by Djelal in Anatolia. The Ottoman Empire lost more land in Crete.
However, in 1656, Kiuprili Mahomed Pasha was made Grand Vizier and it was largely thanks to his efforts that the Ottoman Empire regained much of its power at this time. The rebellion in Istanbul was put down, a new war declared against Venice and Crete was regained after the defeat of the Venetian fleet.
Finally, a long war with Venice (1645-69), occasioned by Ottoman efforts to capture Crete, exposed Istanbul to a major Venetian naval attack. Although the Venetians finally were pushed back in a naval campaign culminating in the Ottoman conquest of Crete (1669), they still posed a major threat that, like those which had occurred earlier in the century, stimulated the ruling class to accept needed reforms.
Efforts were made to restore the timar and tax farm systems as the basis of the administration and army and to limit taxes to the limits imposed by law. Provincial revolts were suppressed, peasants were forced back to the land, and cultivation was increased. Debased coins were replaced by coins of full value. Industry and trade were encouraged, corrupt officials executed, and insubordination driven out.
Europe now faced by the Ottomans was far more powerful than that which the great sultans of the past had defeated; even if the reforms had been more permanently successful, they could not have corrected the increasing Ottoman weakness relative to the powerful nation-states then rising in Europe. Such an understanding was to come to the Ottoman reformers only in the 19th century.
War was declared against the King of Transylvania who had risen against the Ottomans. The fortress of Yanova and several other citadels were seized while the rebellion of Abaza Hassan Pasha was subdued. On the death of Kiuprili Mahomed Pasha in 1661, his son Fazyl Ahmed Pasha became Grand Vizier and war was declared on Austria. Kiuprili Fazyl Pasha was appointed Serdar-i Ekrem (Great Commander in Chief). The fortresses of Uyvar and Zerinvar were captured and Fazyl Pasha set out for Crete where the fortress of Kandiye was captured.
In 1666, on the condition that Venice retained some small castles, the island of Crete was annexed to Ottoman territories. A campaign was launched on Poland where the Cossacks were attacked and the castle at Kommaniche was taken. Fazyl Ahmed Pasha died in 1676 and Kara Moustapha Pasha took his place. The Castle of Cherin, previously held by the Russian Empire, was taken.
In 1683 Mehmed declared war on Austria again and Vienna besieged for the second time. However, due to treachery by the Khan of the Crimea, the Polish King, king Jan Sobieski (ruled 1674-96), not only held out but also built a major European coalition that was to bring destruction to the Ottoman Empire during the 18th century. The Habsburgs set out to reconquer Hungary, Serbia, and the Balkans, while Venice hoped to regain its naval bases along the Adriatic coast and in the Morea and to resume its naval and commercial power in the Levant, and Russia worked to extend its reach through the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles to the Aegean. was able to arrive to support the city and the Ottoman army was defeated. Austria, Venice and Poland formed an alliance against Turkey and, shortly afterwards, it was joined by the Russian Empire. The Ottomans were routed and, according to the Peace of Karlofcha in 1699, the Empire was divided up as follows:
Hungary, apart from Temeshvar, to Austria. Morea to Venice. Podolia and Kommaniche to Poland.
The fortress of Azoph went to Russia by the Treaty of Istanbul, 1700. Shortly after this, rebellions broke out again in Anatolia and Istanbul. Mehmed had been dethroned in 1687, being succeeded by Solyman the Second. He, in turn, had been succeeded by Ahmed the Second in 1691.
Attempts were made to retake land lost by the Treaties of Istanbul and Karlofcha. At one stage the Swiss King took refuge with the Ottomans. Subsequently there was another war with Russia. Under the command of Mehemet Pasha the Baltadji (Woodcutter) the Turks defeated Russian armies at Pruth and by the Peace of Pruth, 1711, the land given to Russia by the Treaty of Istanbul was given back. After war with Venice, Morea and other islands given to Venice by the Treaty of Karlofcha were also regained.
In the East, anarchy in Iran was brought to an end by Shah 'Abbas I, who not only restored Iranian power but also conquered Iraq (1624) and threatened to take the entire Ottoman Empire. Though Murad IV was able to retake Iraq (1638), Iran remained a major threat.
In 1645 the Castle of Hania on the island of Crete was lost to the Venetians, as was a large part of the island. Following this the Venetians attacked the coastal areas of Turkey with their fleet. Sultan Ibrahim was dethroned and his son Mehmed the Fourth took his place. Some sections of the Sultan's Bodyguard in Istanbul rebelled, while further rebellions were provoked by Djelal in Anatolia. The Ottoman Empire lost more land in Crete.
However, in 1656, Kiuprili Mahomed Pasha was made Grand Vizier and it was largely thanks to his efforts that the Ottoman Empire regained much of its power at this time. The rebellion in Istanbul was put down, a new war declared against Venice and Crete was regained after the defeat of the Venetian fleet.
Finally, a long war with Venice (1645-69), occasioned by Ottoman efforts to capture Crete, exposed Istanbul to a major Venetian naval attack. Although the Venetians finally were pushed back in a naval campaign culminating in the Ottoman conquest of Crete (1669), they still posed a major threat that, like those which had occurred earlier in the century, stimulated the ruling class to accept needed reforms.
Efforts were made to restore the timar and tax farm systems as the basis of the administration and army and to limit taxes to the limits imposed by law. Provincial revolts were suppressed, peasants were forced back to the land, and cultivation was increased. Debased coins were replaced by coins of full value. Industry and trade were encouraged, corrupt officials executed, and insubordination driven out.
Europe now faced by the Ottomans was far more powerful than that which the great sultans of the past had defeated; even if the reforms had been more permanently successful, they could not have corrected the increasing Ottoman weakness relative to the powerful nation-states then rising in Europe. Such an understanding was to come to the Ottoman reformers only in the 19th century.
War was declared against the King of Transylvania who had risen against the Ottomans. The fortress of Yanova and several other citadels were seized while the rebellion of Abaza Hassan Pasha was subdued. On the death of Kiuprili Mahomed Pasha in 1661, his son Fazyl Ahmed Pasha became Grand Vizier and war was declared on Austria. Kiuprili Fazyl Pasha was appointed Serdar-i Ekrem (Great Commander in Chief). The fortresses of Uyvar and Zerinvar were captured and Fazyl Pasha set out for Crete where the fortress of Kandiye was captured.
In 1666, on the condition that Venice retained some small castles, the island of Crete was annexed to Ottoman territories. A campaign was launched on Poland where the Cossacks were attacked and the castle at Kommaniche was taken. Fazyl Ahmed Pasha died in 1676 and Kara Moustapha Pasha took his place. The Castle of Cherin, previously held by the Russian Empire, was taken.
In 1683 Mehmed declared war on Austria again and Vienna besieged for the second time. However, due to treachery by the Khan of the Crimea, the Polish King, king Jan Sobieski (ruled 1674-96), not only held out but also built a major European coalition that was to bring destruction to the Ottoman Empire during the 18th century. The Habsburgs set out to reconquer Hungary, Serbia, and the Balkans, while Venice hoped to regain its naval bases along the Adriatic coast and in the Morea and to resume its naval and commercial power in the Levant, and Russia worked to extend its reach through the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles to the Aegean. was able to arrive to support the city and the Ottoman army was defeated. Austria, Venice and Poland formed an alliance against Turkey and, shortly afterwards, it was joined by the Russian Empire. The Ottomans were routed and, according to the Peace of Karlofcha in 1699, the Empire was divided up as follows:
Hungary, apart from Temeshvar, to Austria. Morea to Venice. Podolia and Kommaniche to Poland.
The fortress of Azoph went to Russia by the Treaty of Istanbul, 1700. Shortly after this, rebellions broke out again in Anatolia and Istanbul. Mehmed had been dethroned in 1687, being succeeded by Solyman the Second. He, in turn, had been succeeded by Ahmed the Second in 1691.
Attempts were made to retake land lost by the Treaties of Istanbul and Karlofcha. At one stage the Swiss King took refuge with the Ottomans. Subsequently there was another war with Russia. Under the command of Mehemet Pasha the Baltadji (Woodcutter) the Turks defeated Russian armies at Pruth and by the Peace of Pruth, 1711, the land given to Russia by the Treaty of Istanbul was given back. After war with Venice, Morea and other islands given to Venice by the Treaty of Karlofcha were also regained.
Ottoman History: 1570 - 1644
Ottoman History: 1570 - 1644
Cyprus was conquered in 1570 although a large part of the Turkish fleet was destroyed by the Crusaders at Inebahtin the same year.
Selim was succeeded by his son Amurath the Third. The long wars which had lasted for 12 years ended with the victory of the Turks, the Peace of Istanbul being signed in 1590. Tebriz, Karadagh Gendje, Kars, Tilflis, Shehrizar, Nihavend and Luristan were added to the Empire.
The Austrian-Ottoman Wars began again when the King of Erdel and the Mayors of Walachia and Moldavia, in alliance with Rudolph, the Austrian Emperor, rebelled against Turkish rule. During these wars Amurath died and his place was taken by his son, Mehmed the Third in 1595. The fortress of Eghri was siezed in 1596 and the Austrian army routed at Hachova. The Castle of Kanije was taken, Austrian attempts to retake the citadel in 1601 failing in the face of stern resistance by Tiryaki Hassan Pasha. Transylvania, Walachia and Moldavia were subjected to the Ottomans once again and in 1606 the Treaty of Zitvator was signed. During the war Mehmed died, to be succeeded by his son Ahmed the First (1603).
Economic difficulties began in the late 16th century, when the Dutch and British completely closed the old international trade routes through the Middle East. As a result the prosperity of the Middle Eastern provinces declined. The Ottoman economy was disrupted by inflation, caused by the influx of precious metals into Europe from the Americas and by an increasing imbalance of trade between East and West. As the treasury lost more of its revenues to the depredations of the devsirme, it began to meet its obligations by debasing the coinage, sharply increasing taxes, and resorting to confiscations, all of which only worsened the situation. All those depending on salaries found themselves underpaid, resulting in further theft, overtaxation, and corruption. Holders of the timars and tax farms started using them as sources of revenue to be exploited as rapidly as possible, rather than as long-term holdings whose prosperity had to be maintained to provide for the future. Political influence and corruption also enabled them to transform these holdings into private property, either as life holdings (malik鈔e) or religious endowments (vakif), without any further obligations to the state.
Inflation also weakened the traditional industries and trades. Functioning under strict price regulations, the guilds were unable to provide quality goods at prices low enough to compete with the cheap European manufactured goods that entered the empire without restriction because of the Capitulations agreements. In consequence, traditional Ottoman industry fell into rapid decline. Christian subjects combined with foreign diplomats and merchants, who were protected by the Capitulations, largely to drive the sultan's Muslim and Jewish subjects out of industry and commerce and into poverty and despair
In 1603, while the Ottomans were fighting with the Austrians, the Iranian Shah attacked and the second war with Persia began. The war ended with an agreement that the Shah would pay 200 yuks (an ancient unit of weight) of silk to the Emperors each year. War again broke out when this agreement was broken but it was an inconclusive affair in which neither side gained the upper hand.
Rebellion broke out in Anatolia (Jelali Revolts) and from this point on, the great Ottoman Empire began to decline. Military achievements began to diminish. The rebellion in Anatolia dragged on and was only subdued in the time of Amurath Pasha (the Well-digger).
Mustapha the First succeeded Ahmed on the latter's death, but was dethroned due to ill health. Osman the Second took power instead of him. The Polish Cossacks invaded Ottoman lands and war broke out. Osman realised that the Janissaries were out of control and undisciplined and, therefore, resolved to abolish them and found a new military corps. Hearing of this the Janissaries rioted and in 1622 Osman was murdered.
Mustapha was made Sultan for the second time but, again, his reign did not last long. He was dethroned and Amurath the Fourth was made Sultan. A new war broke out between the Empire and Persia. Baghdad was lost and, in Anatolia, Abaza Mehemet Pasha and, in Istanbul, the Sultan's Bodyguard, rioted against Imperial administration. Amurath, in response, brought in fierce rules and laws and subdued the rebellions by quick, bloody action.
Amurath reorganised the Empire and waged a fierce campaign against Persia. Revan was regained and, in a second campaign, Baghdad was taken. When Amurath died in 1640 his brother Ibrahim (Abraham) took his place.
Cyprus was conquered in 1570 although a large part of the Turkish fleet was destroyed by the Crusaders at Inebahtin the same year.
Selim was succeeded by his son Amurath the Third. The long wars which had lasted for 12 years ended with the victory of the Turks, the Peace of Istanbul being signed in 1590. Tebriz, Karadagh Gendje, Kars, Tilflis, Shehrizar, Nihavend and Luristan were added to the Empire.
The Austrian-Ottoman Wars began again when the King of Erdel and the Mayors of Walachia and Moldavia, in alliance with Rudolph, the Austrian Emperor, rebelled against Turkish rule. During these wars Amurath died and his place was taken by his son, Mehmed the Third in 1595. The fortress of Eghri was siezed in 1596 and the Austrian army routed at Hachova. The Castle of Kanije was taken, Austrian attempts to retake the citadel in 1601 failing in the face of stern resistance by Tiryaki Hassan Pasha. Transylvania, Walachia and Moldavia were subjected to the Ottomans once again and in 1606 the Treaty of Zitvator was signed. During the war Mehmed died, to be succeeded by his son Ahmed the First (1603).
Economic difficulties began in the late 16th century, when the Dutch and British completely closed the old international trade routes through the Middle East. As a result the prosperity of the Middle Eastern provinces declined. The Ottoman economy was disrupted by inflation, caused by the influx of precious metals into Europe from the Americas and by an increasing imbalance of trade between East and West. As the treasury lost more of its revenues to the depredations of the devsirme, it began to meet its obligations by debasing the coinage, sharply increasing taxes, and resorting to confiscations, all of which only worsened the situation. All those depending on salaries found themselves underpaid, resulting in further theft, overtaxation, and corruption. Holders of the timars and tax farms started using them as sources of revenue to be exploited as rapidly as possible, rather than as long-term holdings whose prosperity had to be maintained to provide for the future. Political influence and corruption also enabled them to transform these holdings into private property, either as life holdings (malik鈔e) or religious endowments (vakif), without any further obligations to the state.
Inflation also weakened the traditional industries and trades. Functioning under strict price regulations, the guilds were unable to provide quality goods at prices low enough to compete with the cheap European manufactured goods that entered the empire without restriction because of the Capitulations agreements. In consequence, traditional Ottoman industry fell into rapid decline. Christian subjects combined with foreign diplomats and merchants, who were protected by the Capitulations, largely to drive the sultan's Muslim and Jewish subjects out of industry and commerce and into poverty and despair
In 1603, while the Ottomans were fighting with the Austrians, the Iranian Shah attacked and the second war with Persia began. The war ended with an agreement that the Shah would pay 200 yuks (an ancient unit of weight) of silk to the Emperors each year. War again broke out when this agreement was broken but it was an inconclusive affair in which neither side gained the upper hand.
Rebellion broke out in Anatolia (Jelali Revolts) and from this point on, the great Ottoman Empire began to decline. Military achievements began to diminish. The rebellion in Anatolia dragged on and was only subdued in the time of Amurath Pasha (the Well-digger).
Mustapha the First succeeded Ahmed on the latter's death, but was dethroned due to ill health. Osman the Second took power instead of him. The Polish Cossacks invaded Ottoman lands and war broke out. Osman realised that the Janissaries were out of control and undisciplined and, therefore, resolved to abolish them and found a new military corps. Hearing of this the Janissaries rioted and in 1622 Osman was murdered.
Mustapha was made Sultan for the second time but, again, his reign did not last long. He was dethroned and Amurath the Fourth was made Sultan. A new war broke out between the Empire and Persia. Baghdad was lost and, in Anatolia, Abaza Mehemet Pasha and, in Istanbul, the Sultan's Bodyguard, rioted against Imperial administration. Amurath, in response, brought in fierce rules and laws and subdued the rebellions by quick, bloody action.
Amurath reorganised the Empire and waged a fierce campaign against Persia. Revan was regained and, in a second campaign, Baghdad was taken. When Amurath died in 1640 his brother Ibrahim (Abraham) took his place.
Ottoman History: 1540 - 1570
Ottoman History: 1540 - 1570
In 1540 Hungary became a Turkish province and in 1543 Barbarossa bombarded Nice. Suleyman siezed the citadel of Estergon and in 1544 a new campaign was waged against Persia. Shah Tahmasb did not dare to face Suleyman and a great many castles were taken. Following an inconclusive action in 1552 Shah Tahmasb offered to make peace and, as part of the Treaty, Azerbijan, Eastern Anatolia and Iraq were added to the Empire of the Ottomans.
In 1566, while engaged in besieging the Castle of Sigetwar, Suleyman the Magnificent died. The castle fell shortly after his death and the throne was assumed by his son, Selim.
The mid-16th century also saw the triumph of the devsirme over the Turkish nobility, which lost almost all its power and position in the capital and returned to its old centres of power in southeastern Europe and Anatolia. In consequence, many of the timars formerly assigned to the notables to support the spahi cavalry were seized by the devsirme and transformed into great estates--becoming, for all practical purposes, private property--thus depriving the state of their services as well as the revenue they could have produced if they had been transformed into tax farms. While the spahis did not entirely disappear as a military force, the Janissaries and the associated artillery corps became the most important segments of the Ottoman army
In 1540 Hungary became a Turkish province and in 1543 Barbarossa bombarded Nice. Suleyman siezed the citadel of Estergon and in 1544 a new campaign was waged against Persia. Shah Tahmasb did not dare to face Suleyman and a great many castles were taken. Following an inconclusive action in 1552 Shah Tahmasb offered to make peace and, as part of the Treaty, Azerbijan, Eastern Anatolia and Iraq were added to the Empire of the Ottomans.
In 1566, while engaged in besieging the Castle of Sigetwar, Suleyman the Magnificent died. The castle fell shortly after his death and the throne was assumed by his son, Selim.
The mid-16th century also saw the triumph of the devsirme over the Turkish nobility, which lost almost all its power and position in the capital and returned to its old centres of power in southeastern Europe and Anatolia. In consequence, many of the timars formerly assigned to the notables to support the spahi cavalry were seized by the devsirme and transformed into great estates--becoming, for all practical purposes, private property--thus depriving the state of their services as well as the revenue they could have produced if they had been transformed into tax farms. While the spahis did not entirely disappear as a military force, the Janissaries and the associated artillery corps became the most important segments of the Ottoman army
Ottoman History: 1512 - 1539
Ottoman History: 1512 - 1539
Sultan Selim immediately began operations against Shiite rebels who had strong support in Anatolia. Forty thousand of them were killed in battle and later, at the Battle of Childiran, Shah Ismail was routed. The provinces of Dulkadiroghoullari, Marash and Elbistan were siezed. The Mamelukes were totally defeated at Medjibadik in 1516 and at Ridaniye in 1517. In addition, Syria, Egypt and Hejaz came, administratively, into the Ottoman Empire. On his last campaign to Edirne, Selim died at Chorlou in 1520. His son, Solyman the Magnificent (or Legislator) succeeded him.
During Solyman's sultanate the rebellion of Djanberdi Gazali was suppressed and Belgrade and Rhodesia added to the Empire. At the Battle of Mohadj the Hungarian armies were routed and Hungary became a Kingdom of the Ottoman Empire. In 1529 Vienna was siezed but never fully conquered.
After the retreat of the Ottoman armies the Austrian Emperor attacked, in an attempt to take Boudin, and Solyman began a new campaign. Austria was occupied and peace declared in 1533. The Grand Vizier, Ibrahim Pasha, was sent to rule Persia and Solyman left for Iraq.
Solyman conquered Baghdad and Tebriz and then declared war on Venice. Solyman attacked by land and Barbarossa Khairuddin by sea but, after the unsuccessful siege of Corfu, Turkish troops withdrew in 1537. A year later, however, Barbarossa destroyed the Christian fleet at Preveze and extended the Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean region.
Sultan Selim immediately began operations against Shiite rebels who had strong support in Anatolia. Forty thousand of them were killed in battle and later, at the Battle of Childiran, Shah Ismail was routed. The provinces of Dulkadiroghoullari, Marash and Elbistan were siezed. The Mamelukes were totally defeated at Medjibadik in 1516 and at Ridaniye in 1517. In addition, Syria, Egypt and Hejaz came, administratively, into the Ottoman Empire. On his last campaign to Edirne, Selim died at Chorlou in 1520. His son, Solyman the Magnificent (or Legislator) succeeded him.
During Solyman's sultanate the rebellion of Djanberdi Gazali was suppressed and Belgrade and Rhodesia added to the Empire. At the Battle of Mohadj the Hungarian armies were routed and Hungary became a Kingdom of the Ottoman Empire. In 1529 Vienna was siezed but never fully conquered.
After the retreat of the Ottoman armies the Austrian Emperor attacked, in an attempt to take Boudin, and Solyman began a new campaign. Austria was occupied and peace declared in 1533. The Grand Vizier, Ibrahim Pasha, was sent to rule Persia and Solyman left for Iraq.
Solyman conquered Baghdad and Tebriz and then declared war on Venice. Solyman attacked by land and Barbarossa Khairuddin by sea but, after the unsuccessful siege of Corfu, Turkish troops withdrew in 1537. A year later, however, Barbarossa destroyed the Christian fleet at Preveze and extended the Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean region.
Ottoman History: 1453 - 1511
Ottoman History: 1453 - 1511
Shortly afterwards Serbia and Morea were taken, as were the islands of Limni, Tashos, Midilli, Imros and Eghribos in the Aegean Sea. Mehmed next put an end to the Greek Empire of Trebizond in 1461 and siezed Geonese Colonies in the Crimea. The Crimea was subjected to the Ottoman Empire.
Mehmed declared war against the Akkoyun Empire in 1473 and at the Battle of Otlukbeli he defeated Ouzoun Hassan, the Akkoyun Emperor. With that victory Mehmed the Conqueror annexed the whole of Anatolia as far as the River Euphrates.
In 1480 Gedik Ahmed Pasha began a campaign against Italy. He captured the citadel of Otranto but his own death prevented a complete conquest. Mehmed the Conqueror set out for Egypt but, on his way to do battle at Gebze, he died.
Mehmed was succeeded by his son Bayezid. His brother Djem rebelled against him but was eventually defeated and took refuge in Europe. Bayezid added Herzegovina and Moldavia to his Empire but did not conduct many campaigns while his brother still lived in Europe.
War between the Ottoman and Mameluke Empires began in 1485 and continued for six years, only ending after the Peace of Tunis in 1491. There were many gains for the Ottoman Empire and a rebellion by Shah Ismail began in Anatolia. The rebellion was put down by Hadim Ali Pasha. During Bayezid's last days his sons began to struggle between themselves for the sultanate.
After considerable argument Sultan Bayezid Khan was, either willingly or unwillingly, obliged to hand over power to his son Selim (the Excellent) who had been supported by the Janissaries because of his bravery and courage.
Shortly afterwards Serbia and Morea were taken, as were the islands of Limni, Tashos, Midilli, Imros and Eghribos in the Aegean Sea. Mehmed next put an end to the Greek Empire of Trebizond in 1461 and siezed Geonese Colonies in the Crimea. The Crimea was subjected to the Ottoman Empire.
Mehmed declared war against the Akkoyun Empire in 1473 and at the Battle of Otlukbeli he defeated Ouzoun Hassan, the Akkoyun Emperor. With that victory Mehmed the Conqueror annexed the whole of Anatolia as far as the River Euphrates.
In 1480 Gedik Ahmed Pasha began a campaign against Italy. He captured the citadel of Otranto but his own death prevented a complete conquest. Mehmed the Conqueror set out for Egypt but, on his way to do battle at Gebze, he died.
Mehmed was succeeded by his son Bayezid. His brother Djem rebelled against him but was eventually defeated and took refuge in Europe. Bayezid added Herzegovina and Moldavia to his Empire but did not conduct many campaigns while his brother still lived in Europe.
War between the Ottoman and Mameluke Empires began in 1485 and continued for six years, only ending after the Peace of Tunis in 1491. There were many gains for the Ottoman Empire and a rebellion by Shah Ismail began in Anatolia. The rebellion was put down by Hadim Ali Pasha. During Bayezid's last days his sons began to struggle between themselves for the sultanate.
After considerable argument Sultan Bayezid Khan was, either willingly or unwillingly, obliged to hand over power to his son Selim (the Excellent) who had been supported by the Janissaries because of his bravery and courage.
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