Ottoman History: 1821 - 1838
War came to an end in 1821 with the Peace of Bucharest. The river Pruth was agreed as the frontier between the two countries and Walachia and Moldavia returned to Turkey.
The Greeks of Morea now rose in rebellion. It was put down but England, France and Russia formed an alliance. They destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet at Nevarin and Russia seized Walachia and Moldavia once more. The fortress of Calas, Ibrael, Isakchi, Tolchi, Machin and Silistre were lost and Russian forces advanced as far as Edirne and the eastern region of Anatolia. The Peace of Edirne ended the war with large parts of Anatolia abandoned to the Russians. In 1830 Turkey accepted the establishment of an independent Greek Empire.
Most manifestations of decline were only continuations and elaborations of earlier conditions. In the later Ottoman period, however, a new factor of decline was added: the weakness of the central government resulted in the loss of control of most of the provinces to the local ruling notables, called ayan or derebeyis ("lords of the valley") in Anatolia and klephts or hayduks in Europe, who took more or less permanent control of large areas, creating a situation that in many ways resembled European feudalism much more than the traditional Ottoman timar system ever did.
In the Balkans and Anatolia local rulers solidified their positions by taking advantage of currents of local nationalism that were arising among the Balkan Christians. The notables formed private armies of mercenaries and slaves, which they sometimes used to provide important contributions to the Ottoman armies in return for recognition of their autonomy by the sultans. These rulers were able to exercise almost complete authority, collecting taxes for themselves and sending only nominal payments to the treasury, thus further increasing its problems.
France now occupied Algeria. Mehmet Ali Pasha, the Governor of Egypt, rebelled and advanced as far as Kutahia Sultan Mahmoud asked Russia for help and this was agreed in 1833. As part of the agreement Mehmet Ali Pasha was made Governor of Syria and Governorship of Adana was abandoned to Ibrahim Pasha.
Sunday, August 19, 2007
Ottoman History: 1710 - 1820
Ottoman History: 1710 - 1820
In 1710-11 it fought Russia again, and at the Treaty of the Pruth (1711) it regained some territories previously lost. The war of 1714-18 with Venice and Austria was concluded by the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718); and three wars with Russia and Austria, in 1736-39, 1768-74, and 1787-92, culminated in the treaties of Belgrade (1739), Küçük Kaynarca (1774), and Jassy (1792). As a result of these wars, the Ottomans lost Hungary, the Banat of Temesvár region, Transylvania, and Bukovina, establishing their European boundary on the Danube, where it had been early in the 16th century.
Three wars with Russia and Austria, in 1736-39, 1768-74, and 1787-92, culminated in the treaties of Belgrade (1739), Küçük Kaynarca (1774), and Jassy (1792). As a result of these wars, the Ottomans lost Hungary, the Banat of Temesvár region, Transylvania, and Bukovina, establishing their European boundary on the Danube, where it had been early in the 16th century.
Sultan Ahmed III (ruled 1703-30) built several lavish summer residences on the Bosporus and the Golden Horn (an inlet that forms part of the harbour of Istanbul), and members of his immediate entourage built similarly lavish houses, holding frequent garden parties in imitation of the pleasures of Versailles. The sultan and his ministers were no longer confined behind the walls of the Topkapi palace
Beginning in the so-called Tulip Period - Lale Devri (1717-30), some Ottomans under the influence of the grand vizier Ibrahim Pasa began to dress like Europeans, and the palace began to imitate European court life and pleasures. Growing tulips became an obsession with rich and poor alike, signifying Westernization, and the flower gave its name to the period. In 1727 Turkish-language books were printed for the first time in the empire, by a Hungarian convert who took the name Ibrahim Müteferrika.
In 1723, during war with Persia, parts of Iran close to the Iraq boundary were annexed to Ottoman territories and the Peace of Hemedan was signed in 1727. Hemedan and Tebriz were soon lost to the Shah, however, and the Patrona Riot broke out in Istanbul. Ibrahim Pasha was slaughtered and Ahmed the Third dethroned from his sultanate.
The most successful and lasting Ottoman military reform during this time came in the navy, which was modernized by the grand admiral Gazi Hasan Pasa (served 1770-89) with the support and encouragement of the sultan Abdülhamid I (ruled 1774-89); this success came largely because the Ottoman naval establishment was devastated in 1770 at the Battle of Çesme by a Russian fleet that had sailed from the Baltic Sea, and there was none of the inbred resistance that stifled significant reforms elsewhere. Important reforms introduced into the army under the grand vizier Halil Hamid Pasa (served 1782-85), with the help of Western technicians, were limited to new corps specially created for the purpose. The bulk of the Ottoman army remained unchanged and therefore was more equipped to suppress reform at home than to challenge modern Western armies.
These 18th-century reform efforts culminated during the reign of Selim III (ruled 1789-1807), often considered the originator of modern reform in the Ottoman Empire. While still a prince, Selim developed plans for modernizing the Ottoman army. He came to the throne during the 1787-92 war with Austria and Russia and had to postpone serious reform efforts until its completion. Selim's early efforts to modernize the Janissary corps created such opposition that thereafter he concentrated on creating a new European-style army called the nizam-i cedid ("new order"), using modern weapons and tactics developed in Europe. This new force, never numbering more than 10,000 active soldiers, was trained in Istanbul and in a number of Anatolian provincial centres by officers and military experts sent by the different European powers that were competing for the sultan's support. In order to avoid disrupting the established Ottoman institutions, it was financed by an entirely new treasury, called the irad-i cedid ("new revenue"), whose revenues came from taxes imposed on previously untaxed sources and from the confiscation of some timars whose holders were not fulfilling their military and administrative duties to the state. Under the guidance of European technicians, factories were erected to manufacture modern weapons and ammunition, and technical schools were opened to train Ottoman officers. Limited efforts also were made to rationalize the Ottoman administrative machinery, but largely along traditional lines. The older military corps, however, remained intact and hostile to the new force, and Selim was therefore compelled to limit its size and use.
By 1812 the Ottomans had lost all their possessions on the northern coast of the Black Sea, from the Romanian principalities to the Caucasus, including Bessarabia, southern Ukraine, and the Crimea (the soldiers of which had provided the strongest element in the Ottoman army during the 17th century). In addition, the Ottomans were compelled to allow the Russians and Austrians to intervene legally on behalf of the sultan's Christian subjects, increasing European influence in internal Ottoman affairs.
In 1710-11 it fought Russia again, and at the Treaty of the Pruth (1711) it regained some territories previously lost. The war of 1714-18 with Venice and Austria was concluded by the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718); and three wars with Russia and Austria, in 1736-39, 1768-74, and 1787-92, culminated in the treaties of Belgrade (1739), Küçük Kaynarca (1774), and Jassy (1792). As a result of these wars, the Ottomans lost Hungary, the Banat of Temesvár region, Transylvania, and Bukovina, establishing their European boundary on the Danube, where it had been early in the 16th century.
Three wars with Russia and Austria, in 1736-39, 1768-74, and 1787-92, culminated in the treaties of Belgrade (1739), Küçük Kaynarca (1774), and Jassy (1792). As a result of these wars, the Ottomans lost Hungary, the Banat of Temesvár region, Transylvania, and Bukovina, establishing their European boundary on the Danube, where it had been early in the 16th century.
Sultan Ahmed III (ruled 1703-30) built several lavish summer residences on the Bosporus and the Golden Horn (an inlet that forms part of the harbour of Istanbul), and members of his immediate entourage built similarly lavish houses, holding frequent garden parties in imitation of the pleasures of Versailles. The sultan and his ministers were no longer confined behind the walls of the Topkapi palace
Beginning in the so-called Tulip Period - Lale Devri (1717-30), some Ottomans under the influence of the grand vizier Ibrahim Pasa began to dress like Europeans, and the palace began to imitate European court life and pleasures. Growing tulips became an obsession with rich and poor alike, signifying Westernization, and the flower gave its name to the period. In 1727 Turkish-language books were printed for the first time in the empire, by a Hungarian convert who took the name Ibrahim Müteferrika.
In 1723, during war with Persia, parts of Iran close to the Iraq boundary were annexed to Ottoman territories and the Peace of Hemedan was signed in 1727. Hemedan and Tebriz were soon lost to the Shah, however, and the Patrona Riot broke out in Istanbul. Ibrahim Pasha was slaughtered and Ahmed the Third dethroned from his sultanate.
The most successful and lasting Ottoman military reform during this time came in the navy, which was modernized by the grand admiral Gazi Hasan Pasa (served 1770-89) with the support and encouragement of the sultan Abdülhamid I (ruled 1774-89); this success came largely because the Ottoman naval establishment was devastated in 1770 at the Battle of Çesme by a Russian fleet that had sailed from the Baltic Sea, and there was none of the inbred resistance that stifled significant reforms elsewhere. Important reforms introduced into the army under the grand vizier Halil Hamid Pasa (served 1782-85), with the help of Western technicians, were limited to new corps specially created for the purpose. The bulk of the Ottoman army remained unchanged and therefore was more equipped to suppress reform at home than to challenge modern Western armies.
These 18th-century reform efforts culminated during the reign of Selim III (ruled 1789-1807), often considered the originator of modern reform in the Ottoman Empire. While still a prince, Selim developed plans for modernizing the Ottoman army. He came to the throne during the 1787-92 war with Austria and Russia and had to postpone serious reform efforts until its completion. Selim's early efforts to modernize the Janissary corps created such opposition that thereafter he concentrated on creating a new European-style army called the nizam-i cedid ("new order"), using modern weapons and tactics developed in Europe. This new force, never numbering more than 10,000 active soldiers, was trained in Istanbul and in a number of Anatolian provincial centres by officers and military experts sent by the different European powers that were competing for the sultan's support. In order to avoid disrupting the established Ottoman institutions, it was financed by an entirely new treasury, called the irad-i cedid ("new revenue"), whose revenues came from taxes imposed on previously untaxed sources and from the confiscation of some timars whose holders were not fulfilling their military and administrative duties to the state. Under the guidance of European technicians, factories were erected to manufacture modern weapons and ammunition, and technical schools were opened to train Ottoman officers. Limited efforts also were made to rationalize the Ottoman administrative machinery, but largely along traditional lines. The older military corps, however, remained intact and hostile to the new force, and Selim was therefore compelled to limit its size and use.
By 1812 the Ottomans had lost all their possessions on the northern coast of the Black Sea, from the Romanian principalities to the Caucasus, including Bessarabia, southern Ukraine, and the Crimea (the soldiers of which had provided the strongest element in the Ottoman army during the 17th century). In addition, the Ottomans were compelled to allow the Russians and Austrians to intervene legally on behalf of the sultan's Christian subjects, increasing European influence in internal Ottoman affairs.
Ottoman History: 1645 - 1710
Ottoman History: 1645 - 1710
In the East, anarchy in Iran was brought to an end by Shah 'Abbas I, who not only restored Iranian power but also conquered Iraq (1624) and threatened to take the entire Ottoman Empire. Though Murad IV was able to retake Iraq (1638), Iran remained a major threat.
In 1645 the Castle of Hania on the island of Crete was lost to the Venetians, as was a large part of the island. Following this the Venetians attacked the coastal areas of Turkey with their fleet. Sultan Ibrahim was dethroned and his son Mehmed the Fourth took his place. Some sections of the Sultan's Bodyguard in Istanbul rebelled, while further rebellions were provoked by Djelal in Anatolia. The Ottoman Empire lost more land in Crete.
However, in 1656, Kiuprili Mahomed Pasha was made Grand Vizier and it was largely thanks to his efforts that the Ottoman Empire regained much of its power at this time. The rebellion in Istanbul was put down, a new war declared against Venice and Crete was regained after the defeat of the Venetian fleet.
Finally, a long war with Venice (1645-69), occasioned by Ottoman efforts to capture Crete, exposed Istanbul to a major Venetian naval attack. Although the Venetians finally were pushed back in a naval campaign culminating in the Ottoman conquest of Crete (1669), they still posed a major threat that, like those which had occurred earlier in the century, stimulated the ruling class to accept needed reforms.
Efforts were made to restore the timar and tax farm systems as the basis of the administration and army and to limit taxes to the limits imposed by law. Provincial revolts were suppressed, peasants were forced back to the land, and cultivation was increased. Debased coins were replaced by coins of full value. Industry and trade were encouraged, corrupt officials executed, and insubordination driven out.
Europe now faced by the Ottomans was far more powerful than that which the great sultans of the past had defeated; even if the reforms had been more permanently successful, they could not have corrected the increasing Ottoman weakness relative to the powerful nation-states then rising in Europe. Such an understanding was to come to the Ottoman reformers only in the 19th century.
War was declared against the King of Transylvania who had risen against the Ottomans. The fortress of Yanova and several other citadels were seized while the rebellion of Abaza Hassan Pasha was subdued. On the death of Kiuprili Mahomed Pasha in 1661, his son Fazyl Ahmed Pasha became Grand Vizier and war was declared on Austria. Kiuprili Fazyl Pasha was appointed Serdar-i Ekrem (Great Commander in Chief). The fortresses of Uyvar and Zerinvar were captured and Fazyl Pasha set out for Crete where the fortress of Kandiye was captured.
In 1666, on the condition that Venice retained some small castles, the island of Crete was annexed to Ottoman territories. A campaign was launched on Poland where the Cossacks were attacked and the castle at Kommaniche was taken. Fazyl Ahmed Pasha died in 1676 and Kara Moustapha Pasha took his place. The Castle of Cherin, previously held by the Russian Empire, was taken.
In 1683 Mehmed declared war on Austria again and Vienna besieged for the second time. However, due to treachery by the Khan of the Crimea, the Polish King, king Jan Sobieski (ruled 1674-96), not only held out but also built a major European coalition that was to bring destruction to the Ottoman Empire during the 18th century. The Habsburgs set out to reconquer Hungary, Serbia, and the Balkans, while Venice hoped to regain its naval bases along the Adriatic coast and in the Morea and to resume its naval and commercial power in the Levant, and Russia worked to extend its reach through the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles to the Aegean. was able to arrive to support the city and the Ottoman army was defeated. Austria, Venice and Poland formed an alliance against Turkey and, shortly afterwards, it was joined by the Russian Empire. The Ottomans were routed and, according to the Peace of Karlofcha in 1699, the Empire was divided up as follows:
Hungary, apart from Temeshvar, to Austria. Morea to Venice. Podolia and Kommaniche to Poland.
The fortress of Azoph went to Russia by the Treaty of Istanbul, 1700. Shortly after this, rebellions broke out again in Anatolia and Istanbul. Mehmed had been dethroned in 1687, being succeeded by Solyman the Second. He, in turn, had been succeeded by Ahmed the Second in 1691.
Attempts were made to retake land lost by the Treaties of Istanbul and Karlofcha. At one stage the Swiss King took refuge with the Ottomans. Subsequently there was another war with Russia. Under the command of Mehemet Pasha the Baltadji (Woodcutter) the Turks defeated Russian armies at Pruth and by the Peace of Pruth, 1711, the land given to Russia by the Treaty of Istanbul was given back. After war with Venice, Morea and other islands given to Venice by the Treaty of Karlofcha were also regained.
In the East, anarchy in Iran was brought to an end by Shah 'Abbas I, who not only restored Iranian power but also conquered Iraq (1624) and threatened to take the entire Ottoman Empire. Though Murad IV was able to retake Iraq (1638), Iran remained a major threat.
In 1645 the Castle of Hania on the island of Crete was lost to the Venetians, as was a large part of the island. Following this the Venetians attacked the coastal areas of Turkey with their fleet. Sultan Ibrahim was dethroned and his son Mehmed the Fourth took his place. Some sections of the Sultan's Bodyguard in Istanbul rebelled, while further rebellions were provoked by Djelal in Anatolia. The Ottoman Empire lost more land in Crete.
However, in 1656, Kiuprili Mahomed Pasha was made Grand Vizier and it was largely thanks to his efforts that the Ottoman Empire regained much of its power at this time. The rebellion in Istanbul was put down, a new war declared against Venice and Crete was regained after the defeat of the Venetian fleet.
Finally, a long war with Venice (1645-69), occasioned by Ottoman efforts to capture Crete, exposed Istanbul to a major Venetian naval attack. Although the Venetians finally were pushed back in a naval campaign culminating in the Ottoman conquest of Crete (1669), they still posed a major threat that, like those which had occurred earlier in the century, stimulated the ruling class to accept needed reforms.
Efforts were made to restore the timar and tax farm systems as the basis of the administration and army and to limit taxes to the limits imposed by law. Provincial revolts were suppressed, peasants were forced back to the land, and cultivation was increased. Debased coins were replaced by coins of full value. Industry and trade were encouraged, corrupt officials executed, and insubordination driven out.
Europe now faced by the Ottomans was far more powerful than that which the great sultans of the past had defeated; even if the reforms had been more permanently successful, they could not have corrected the increasing Ottoman weakness relative to the powerful nation-states then rising in Europe. Such an understanding was to come to the Ottoman reformers only in the 19th century.
War was declared against the King of Transylvania who had risen against the Ottomans. The fortress of Yanova and several other citadels were seized while the rebellion of Abaza Hassan Pasha was subdued. On the death of Kiuprili Mahomed Pasha in 1661, his son Fazyl Ahmed Pasha became Grand Vizier and war was declared on Austria. Kiuprili Fazyl Pasha was appointed Serdar-i Ekrem (Great Commander in Chief). The fortresses of Uyvar and Zerinvar were captured and Fazyl Pasha set out for Crete where the fortress of Kandiye was captured.
In 1666, on the condition that Venice retained some small castles, the island of Crete was annexed to Ottoman territories. A campaign was launched on Poland where the Cossacks were attacked and the castle at Kommaniche was taken. Fazyl Ahmed Pasha died in 1676 and Kara Moustapha Pasha took his place. The Castle of Cherin, previously held by the Russian Empire, was taken.
In 1683 Mehmed declared war on Austria again and Vienna besieged for the second time. However, due to treachery by the Khan of the Crimea, the Polish King, king Jan Sobieski (ruled 1674-96), not only held out but also built a major European coalition that was to bring destruction to the Ottoman Empire during the 18th century. The Habsburgs set out to reconquer Hungary, Serbia, and the Balkans, while Venice hoped to regain its naval bases along the Adriatic coast and in the Morea and to resume its naval and commercial power in the Levant, and Russia worked to extend its reach through the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles to the Aegean. was able to arrive to support the city and the Ottoman army was defeated. Austria, Venice and Poland formed an alliance against Turkey and, shortly afterwards, it was joined by the Russian Empire. The Ottomans were routed and, according to the Peace of Karlofcha in 1699, the Empire was divided up as follows:
Hungary, apart from Temeshvar, to Austria. Morea to Venice. Podolia and Kommaniche to Poland.
The fortress of Azoph went to Russia by the Treaty of Istanbul, 1700. Shortly after this, rebellions broke out again in Anatolia and Istanbul. Mehmed had been dethroned in 1687, being succeeded by Solyman the Second. He, in turn, had been succeeded by Ahmed the Second in 1691.
Attempts were made to retake land lost by the Treaties of Istanbul and Karlofcha. At one stage the Swiss King took refuge with the Ottomans. Subsequently there was another war with Russia. Under the command of Mehemet Pasha the Baltadji (Woodcutter) the Turks defeated Russian armies at Pruth and by the Peace of Pruth, 1711, the land given to Russia by the Treaty of Istanbul was given back. After war with Venice, Morea and other islands given to Venice by the Treaty of Karlofcha were also regained.
Ottoman History: 1570 - 1644
Ottoman History: 1570 - 1644
Cyprus was conquered in 1570 although a large part of the Turkish fleet was destroyed by the Crusaders at Inebahtin the same year.
Selim was succeeded by his son Amurath the Third. The long wars which had lasted for 12 years ended with the victory of the Turks, the Peace of Istanbul being signed in 1590. Tebriz, Karadagh Gendje, Kars, Tilflis, Shehrizar, Nihavend and Luristan were added to the Empire.
The Austrian-Ottoman Wars began again when the King of Erdel and the Mayors of Walachia and Moldavia, in alliance with Rudolph, the Austrian Emperor, rebelled against Turkish rule. During these wars Amurath died and his place was taken by his son, Mehmed the Third in 1595. The fortress of Eghri was siezed in 1596 and the Austrian army routed at Hachova. The Castle of Kanije was taken, Austrian attempts to retake the citadel in 1601 failing in the face of stern resistance by Tiryaki Hassan Pasha. Transylvania, Walachia and Moldavia were subjected to the Ottomans once again and in 1606 the Treaty of Zitvator was signed. During the war Mehmed died, to be succeeded by his son Ahmed the First (1603).
Economic difficulties began in the late 16th century, when the Dutch and British completely closed the old international trade routes through the Middle East. As a result the prosperity of the Middle Eastern provinces declined. The Ottoman economy was disrupted by inflation, caused by the influx of precious metals into Europe from the Americas and by an increasing imbalance of trade between East and West. As the treasury lost more of its revenues to the depredations of the devsirme, it began to meet its obligations by debasing the coinage, sharply increasing taxes, and resorting to confiscations, all of which only worsened the situation. All those depending on salaries found themselves underpaid, resulting in further theft, overtaxation, and corruption. Holders of the timars and tax farms started using them as sources of revenue to be exploited as rapidly as possible, rather than as long-term holdings whose prosperity had to be maintained to provide for the future. Political influence and corruption also enabled them to transform these holdings into private property, either as life holdings (malik鈔e) or religious endowments (vakif), without any further obligations to the state.
Inflation also weakened the traditional industries and trades. Functioning under strict price regulations, the guilds were unable to provide quality goods at prices low enough to compete with the cheap European manufactured goods that entered the empire without restriction because of the Capitulations agreements. In consequence, traditional Ottoman industry fell into rapid decline. Christian subjects combined with foreign diplomats and merchants, who were protected by the Capitulations, largely to drive the sultan's Muslim and Jewish subjects out of industry and commerce and into poverty and despair
In 1603, while the Ottomans were fighting with the Austrians, the Iranian Shah attacked and the second war with Persia began. The war ended with an agreement that the Shah would pay 200 yuks (an ancient unit of weight) of silk to the Emperors each year. War again broke out when this agreement was broken but it was an inconclusive affair in which neither side gained the upper hand.
Rebellion broke out in Anatolia (Jelali Revolts) and from this point on, the great Ottoman Empire began to decline. Military achievements began to diminish. The rebellion in Anatolia dragged on and was only subdued in the time of Amurath Pasha (the Well-digger).
Mustapha the First succeeded Ahmed on the latter's death, but was dethroned due to ill health. Osman the Second took power instead of him. The Polish Cossacks invaded Ottoman lands and war broke out. Osman realised that the Janissaries were out of control and undisciplined and, therefore, resolved to abolish them and found a new military corps. Hearing of this the Janissaries rioted and in 1622 Osman was murdered.
Mustapha was made Sultan for the second time but, again, his reign did not last long. He was dethroned and Amurath the Fourth was made Sultan. A new war broke out between the Empire and Persia. Baghdad was lost and, in Anatolia, Abaza Mehemet Pasha and, in Istanbul, the Sultan's Bodyguard, rioted against Imperial administration. Amurath, in response, brought in fierce rules and laws and subdued the rebellions by quick, bloody action.
Amurath reorganised the Empire and waged a fierce campaign against Persia. Revan was regained and, in a second campaign, Baghdad was taken. When Amurath died in 1640 his brother Ibrahim (Abraham) took his place.
Cyprus was conquered in 1570 although a large part of the Turkish fleet was destroyed by the Crusaders at Inebahtin the same year.
Selim was succeeded by his son Amurath the Third. The long wars which had lasted for 12 years ended with the victory of the Turks, the Peace of Istanbul being signed in 1590. Tebriz, Karadagh Gendje, Kars, Tilflis, Shehrizar, Nihavend and Luristan were added to the Empire.
The Austrian-Ottoman Wars began again when the King of Erdel and the Mayors of Walachia and Moldavia, in alliance with Rudolph, the Austrian Emperor, rebelled against Turkish rule. During these wars Amurath died and his place was taken by his son, Mehmed the Third in 1595. The fortress of Eghri was siezed in 1596 and the Austrian army routed at Hachova. The Castle of Kanije was taken, Austrian attempts to retake the citadel in 1601 failing in the face of stern resistance by Tiryaki Hassan Pasha. Transylvania, Walachia and Moldavia were subjected to the Ottomans once again and in 1606 the Treaty of Zitvator was signed. During the war Mehmed died, to be succeeded by his son Ahmed the First (1603).
Economic difficulties began in the late 16th century, when the Dutch and British completely closed the old international trade routes through the Middle East. As a result the prosperity of the Middle Eastern provinces declined. The Ottoman economy was disrupted by inflation, caused by the influx of precious metals into Europe from the Americas and by an increasing imbalance of trade between East and West. As the treasury lost more of its revenues to the depredations of the devsirme, it began to meet its obligations by debasing the coinage, sharply increasing taxes, and resorting to confiscations, all of which only worsened the situation. All those depending on salaries found themselves underpaid, resulting in further theft, overtaxation, and corruption. Holders of the timars and tax farms started using them as sources of revenue to be exploited as rapidly as possible, rather than as long-term holdings whose prosperity had to be maintained to provide for the future. Political influence and corruption also enabled them to transform these holdings into private property, either as life holdings (malik鈔e) or religious endowments (vakif), without any further obligations to the state.
Inflation also weakened the traditional industries and trades. Functioning under strict price regulations, the guilds were unable to provide quality goods at prices low enough to compete with the cheap European manufactured goods that entered the empire without restriction because of the Capitulations agreements. In consequence, traditional Ottoman industry fell into rapid decline. Christian subjects combined with foreign diplomats and merchants, who were protected by the Capitulations, largely to drive the sultan's Muslim and Jewish subjects out of industry and commerce and into poverty and despair
In 1603, while the Ottomans were fighting with the Austrians, the Iranian Shah attacked and the second war with Persia began. The war ended with an agreement that the Shah would pay 200 yuks (an ancient unit of weight) of silk to the Emperors each year. War again broke out when this agreement was broken but it was an inconclusive affair in which neither side gained the upper hand.
Rebellion broke out in Anatolia (Jelali Revolts) and from this point on, the great Ottoman Empire began to decline. Military achievements began to diminish. The rebellion in Anatolia dragged on and was only subdued in the time of Amurath Pasha (the Well-digger).
Mustapha the First succeeded Ahmed on the latter's death, but was dethroned due to ill health. Osman the Second took power instead of him. The Polish Cossacks invaded Ottoman lands and war broke out. Osman realised that the Janissaries were out of control and undisciplined and, therefore, resolved to abolish them and found a new military corps. Hearing of this the Janissaries rioted and in 1622 Osman was murdered.
Mustapha was made Sultan for the second time but, again, his reign did not last long. He was dethroned and Amurath the Fourth was made Sultan. A new war broke out between the Empire and Persia. Baghdad was lost and, in Anatolia, Abaza Mehemet Pasha and, in Istanbul, the Sultan's Bodyguard, rioted against Imperial administration. Amurath, in response, brought in fierce rules and laws and subdued the rebellions by quick, bloody action.
Amurath reorganised the Empire and waged a fierce campaign against Persia. Revan was regained and, in a second campaign, Baghdad was taken. When Amurath died in 1640 his brother Ibrahim (Abraham) took his place.
Ottoman History: 1540 - 1570
Ottoman History: 1540 - 1570
In 1540 Hungary became a Turkish province and in 1543 Barbarossa bombarded Nice. Suleyman siezed the citadel of Estergon and in 1544 a new campaign was waged against Persia. Shah Tahmasb did not dare to face Suleyman and a great many castles were taken. Following an inconclusive action in 1552 Shah Tahmasb offered to make peace and, as part of the Treaty, Azerbijan, Eastern Anatolia and Iraq were added to the Empire of the Ottomans.
In 1566, while engaged in besieging the Castle of Sigetwar, Suleyman the Magnificent died. The castle fell shortly after his death and the throne was assumed by his son, Selim.
The mid-16th century also saw the triumph of the devsirme over the Turkish nobility, which lost almost all its power and position in the capital and returned to its old centres of power in southeastern Europe and Anatolia. In consequence, many of the timars formerly assigned to the notables to support the spahi cavalry were seized by the devsirme and transformed into great estates--becoming, for all practical purposes, private property--thus depriving the state of their services as well as the revenue they could have produced if they had been transformed into tax farms. While the spahis did not entirely disappear as a military force, the Janissaries and the associated artillery corps became the most important segments of the Ottoman army
In 1540 Hungary became a Turkish province and in 1543 Barbarossa bombarded Nice. Suleyman siezed the citadel of Estergon and in 1544 a new campaign was waged against Persia. Shah Tahmasb did not dare to face Suleyman and a great many castles were taken. Following an inconclusive action in 1552 Shah Tahmasb offered to make peace and, as part of the Treaty, Azerbijan, Eastern Anatolia and Iraq were added to the Empire of the Ottomans.
In 1566, while engaged in besieging the Castle of Sigetwar, Suleyman the Magnificent died. The castle fell shortly after his death and the throne was assumed by his son, Selim.
The mid-16th century also saw the triumph of the devsirme over the Turkish nobility, which lost almost all its power and position in the capital and returned to its old centres of power in southeastern Europe and Anatolia. In consequence, many of the timars formerly assigned to the notables to support the spahi cavalry were seized by the devsirme and transformed into great estates--becoming, for all practical purposes, private property--thus depriving the state of their services as well as the revenue they could have produced if they had been transformed into tax farms. While the spahis did not entirely disappear as a military force, the Janissaries and the associated artillery corps became the most important segments of the Ottoman army
Ottoman History: 1512 - 1539
Ottoman History: 1512 - 1539
Sultan Selim immediately began operations against Shiite rebels who had strong support in Anatolia. Forty thousand of them were killed in battle and later, at the Battle of Childiran, Shah Ismail was routed. The provinces of Dulkadiroghoullari, Marash and Elbistan were siezed. The Mamelukes were totally defeated at Medjibadik in 1516 and at Ridaniye in 1517. In addition, Syria, Egypt and Hejaz came, administratively, into the Ottoman Empire. On his last campaign to Edirne, Selim died at Chorlou in 1520. His son, Solyman the Magnificent (or Legislator) succeeded him.
During Solyman's sultanate the rebellion of Djanberdi Gazali was suppressed and Belgrade and Rhodesia added to the Empire. At the Battle of Mohadj the Hungarian armies were routed and Hungary became a Kingdom of the Ottoman Empire. In 1529 Vienna was siezed but never fully conquered.
After the retreat of the Ottoman armies the Austrian Emperor attacked, in an attempt to take Boudin, and Solyman began a new campaign. Austria was occupied and peace declared in 1533. The Grand Vizier, Ibrahim Pasha, was sent to rule Persia and Solyman left for Iraq.
Solyman conquered Baghdad and Tebriz and then declared war on Venice. Solyman attacked by land and Barbarossa Khairuddin by sea but, after the unsuccessful siege of Corfu, Turkish troops withdrew in 1537. A year later, however, Barbarossa destroyed the Christian fleet at Preveze and extended the Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean region.
Sultan Selim immediately began operations against Shiite rebels who had strong support in Anatolia. Forty thousand of them were killed in battle and later, at the Battle of Childiran, Shah Ismail was routed. The provinces of Dulkadiroghoullari, Marash and Elbistan were siezed. The Mamelukes were totally defeated at Medjibadik in 1516 and at Ridaniye in 1517. In addition, Syria, Egypt and Hejaz came, administratively, into the Ottoman Empire. On his last campaign to Edirne, Selim died at Chorlou in 1520. His son, Solyman the Magnificent (or Legislator) succeeded him.
During Solyman's sultanate the rebellion of Djanberdi Gazali was suppressed and Belgrade and Rhodesia added to the Empire. At the Battle of Mohadj the Hungarian armies were routed and Hungary became a Kingdom of the Ottoman Empire. In 1529 Vienna was siezed but never fully conquered.
After the retreat of the Ottoman armies the Austrian Emperor attacked, in an attempt to take Boudin, and Solyman began a new campaign. Austria was occupied and peace declared in 1533. The Grand Vizier, Ibrahim Pasha, was sent to rule Persia and Solyman left for Iraq.
Solyman conquered Baghdad and Tebriz and then declared war on Venice. Solyman attacked by land and Barbarossa Khairuddin by sea but, after the unsuccessful siege of Corfu, Turkish troops withdrew in 1537. A year later, however, Barbarossa destroyed the Christian fleet at Preveze and extended the Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean region.
Ottoman History: 1453 - 1511
Ottoman History: 1453 - 1511
Shortly afterwards Serbia and Morea were taken, as were the islands of Limni, Tashos, Midilli, Imros and Eghribos in the Aegean Sea. Mehmed next put an end to the Greek Empire of Trebizond in 1461 and siezed Geonese Colonies in the Crimea. The Crimea was subjected to the Ottoman Empire.
Mehmed declared war against the Akkoyun Empire in 1473 and at the Battle of Otlukbeli he defeated Ouzoun Hassan, the Akkoyun Emperor. With that victory Mehmed the Conqueror annexed the whole of Anatolia as far as the River Euphrates.
In 1480 Gedik Ahmed Pasha began a campaign against Italy. He captured the citadel of Otranto but his own death prevented a complete conquest. Mehmed the Conqueror set out for Egypt but, on his way to do battle at Gebze, he died.
Mehmed was succeeded by his son Bayezid. His brother Djem rebelled against him but was eventually defeated and took refuge in Europe. Bayezid added Herzegovina and Moldavia to his Empire but did not conduct many campaigns while his brother still lived in Europe.
War between the Ottoman and Mameluke Empires began in 1485 and continued for six years, only ending after the Peace of Tunis in 1491. There were many gains for the Ottoman Empire and a rebellion by Shah Ismail began in Anatolia. The rebellion was put down by Hadim Ali Pasha. During Bayezid's last days his sons began to struggle between themselves for the sultanate.
After considerable argument Sultan Bayezid Khan was, either willingly or unwillingly, obliged to hand over power to his son Selim (the Excellent) who had been supported by the Janissaries because of his bravery and courage.
Shortly afterwards Serbia and Morea were taken, as were the islands of Limni, Tashos, Midilli, Imros and Eghribos in the Aegean Sea. Mehmed next put an end to the Greek Empire of Trebizond in 1461 and siezed Geonese Colonies in the Crimea. The Crimea was subjected to the Ottoman Empire.
Mehmed declared war against the Akkoyun Empire in 1473 and at the Battle of Otlukbeli he defeated Ouzoun Hassan, the Akkoyun Emperor. With that victory Mehmed the Conqueror annexed the whole of Anatolia as far as the River Euphrates.
In 1480 Gedik Ahmed Pasha began a campaign against Italy. He captured the citadel of Otranto but his own death prevented a complete conquest. Mehmed the Conqueror set out for Egypt but, on his way to do battle at Gebze, he died.
Mehmed was succeeded by his son Bayezid. His brother Djem rebelled against him but was eventually defeated and took refuge in Europe. Bayezid added Herzegovina and Moldavia to his Empire but did not conduct many campaigns while his brother still lived in Europe.
War between the Ottoman and Mameluke Empires began in 1485 and continued for six years, only ending after the Peace of Tunis in 1491. There were many gains for the Ottoman Empire and a rebellion by Shah Ismail began in Anatolia. The rebellion was put down by Hadim Ali Pasha. During Bayezid's last days his sons began to struggle between themselves for the sultanate.
After considerable argument Sultan Bayezid Khan was, either willingly or unwillingly, obliged to hand over power to his son Selim (the Excellent) who had been supported by the Janissaries because of his bravery and courage.
Ottoman History: 1400 - 1452
Ottoman History: 1400 - 1452
Timour plundered Siwas and moved into Western Anatolia and Syria. Bayezid gathered his forces and attacked Angora in 1402. However, he was routed by Timour and taken prisoner and died in captivity in 1403.
On Bayezid's death, his sons declared separate, independent sultanates - Solyman in Romelia, Isa Chelebi in Balikeseer, Chelebi Mehmed in Amassia and Mousa Chelebi in Brusa.
Subsequently, Chelebi Mehmed became the sole sovereign in 1413. After his death in 1421 his son Amurath the Second took his place.
He supressed a rebellion led by his brother Moustapha, attacked the Byzantines, made war with Venice and besieged Eghriboz and Morea. In 1430 he regained Salonica from the Venetians and Wallachia and Serbia joined the Ottoman Empire once more. In 1437 Hamidili, Tashili, Koniah and Beysheheer were conquered.
Amurath left the throne to his young son Mehmed but this resulted in new attacks by the Crusaders. However, the invaders were routed and Amurath took the throne once more. He defeated another Crusader force in 1448 and then attacked Albania. Akcha-Hissar was besieged but not taken.
On Amurath's death, his son Mehmed succeeded him. Having built the fortress of Roumelia he then besieged Istanbul. After a siege of 53 days the city fell on May 29th, 1453.
Timour plundered Siwas and moved into Western Anatolia and Syria. Bayezid gathered his forces and attacked Angora in 1402. However, he was routed by Timour and taken prisoner and died in captivity in 1403.
On Bayezid's death, his sons declared separate, independent sultanates - Solyman in Romelia, Isa Chelebi in Balikeseer, Chelebi Mehmed in Amassia and Mousa Chelebi in Brusa.
Subsequently, Chelebi Mehmed became the sole sovereign in 1413. After his death in 1421 his son Amurath the Second took his place.
He supressed a rebellion led by his brother Moustapha, attacked the Byzantines, made war with Venice and besieged Eghriboz and Morea. In 1430 he regained Salonica from the Venetians and Wallachia and Serbia joined the Ottoman Empire once more. In 1437 Hamidili, Tashili, Koniah and Beysheheer were conquered.
Amurath left the throne to his young son Mehmed but this resulted in new attacks by the Crusaders. However, the invaders were routed and Amurath took the throne once more. He defeated another Crusader force in 1448 and then attacked Albania. Akcha-Hissar was besieged but not taken.
On Amurath's death, his son Mehmed succeeded him. Having built the fortress of Roumelia he then besieged Istanbul. After a siege of 53 days the city fell on May 29th, 1453.
Friday, August 17, 2007
USA Military Bases
US Air Force Base in Diego Garcia, Indian Ocean. The picture shows around 20 Bombers Aircraft. So which country are they trying to bomb? Iran?
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is an intergovernmental international organization founded in Shanghai on 15 June 2001 by six countries: China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Its member states cover an area of over 30 million km2, or about three fifths of Eurasia, with a population of 1.455 billion, about a quarter of the world's total. Its working languages are Chinese and Russian.
SCO's predecessor, the Shanghai Five mechanism, originated and grew from the endeavor by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to strengthen confidence-building and disarmament in the border regions. In 1996 and 1997, their heads of state met in Shanghai and Moscow respectively and signed the Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions and the Treaty on Reduction of Military Forces in Border Regions. There after, this annual meeting became a regular practice and has been held alternately in the five member states. The topics of the meeting gradually extended from building up trust in the border regions to mutually beneficial cooperation in the political, security, diplomatic, economic, trade and other areas among the five states. The President of Uzbekistan was invited to the 2000 Dushanbe Summit as a guest of the host state. As the first meeting of the five heads of state took place in Shanghai, the cooperation mechanism was later known as the "Shanghai Five".
On the fifth anniversary of the Shanghai Five in June 2001, the heads of state of its members and the President of Uzbekistan met in Shanghai, the birthplace of the mechanism. First they signed a joint declaration admitting Uzbekistan as member of the Shanghai Five mechanism and then jointly issued the Declaration on the Establishment of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The document announced that for the purpose of upgrading the level of cooperation to more effectively seize opportunities and deal with new challenges and threats, the six states had decided to establish a Shanghai Cooperation Organization on the basis of the Shanghai Five mechanism.
In June 2002, the heads of SCO member states met in St. Petersburg and signed the SCO Charter, which clearly expounded the SCO purposes and principles, organizational structure, form of operation, cooperation, orientation and external relations, marking the actual establishment of this new organization in the sense of international law.
Iran appears increasingly interested in joining the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and form a powerful axis with its twin pillars, China and Russia, as a counterweight to a US power "unchained". The SCO was initially set up as an open and nonaligned organization and it was not initially targeted at a third party. Chinese Assistant Foreign Minister Li Hui said that the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) will not take in new members before its six members make serious studies. The organization is still very young and the six SCO members need to have further discussions before deciding whether or not to accept new members, Li said 01 June 2004. Mongolia's demand to participate in the organization as an 'observer' was approved at the June 2004 summit. Guidelines on the status of observer nations were approved and it was decided to award Mongolia this new status.
On 17 June 2004, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization held its annual Summit in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Attending this conference was Chinese President Hu Jintao, Russian President Vladimir Putin, Kyrgyzstan President Askar Akayev, Tajikistan President Emomali Rakhmonov, Kazakhstan President Nursultan Nazarbayev and Uzbekistan President Islam Karimov. Much of the pre-summit media attention included what Russian President Putin and Chinese President Hu hoped would facilitate the development of economic relations between the SCO countries. This appeared to have been successful. At the conclusion of the summit, the leaders signed a document titled the Tashkent Declaration. The declaration summarized the outcome of the SCO's work since it was set up, evaluated the activities of the organization's agencies and set new goals. They also signed agreements on cooperation in fighting drug trafficking and on the protection of secret information in the framework of the SCO anti-terrorist agency, whose headquarters were opened in Tashkent.
Several meetings were conducted on the sidelines of the Summit. Chinese President Hu Jintao met with Afghanistan Transitional President Hamid Karzai, who was a guest of Uzbek President Islam Karimov, and they discussed Afghanistan’s attempts to locate and bring to justice the terrorists who attacked Chinese workers there. In other meetings, Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev handed over to Hu Jintao a written document to confirm Kyrgyzstan's stance to recognize China' s full market economy status. Hu said the move by Kyrgyzstan will "greatly push forward China-Kyrgyzstan bilateral trade and economic cooperation." Hu made a four-point proposal in meeting with Tajik President Emomali Rakhmonov on strengthening cooperation. Hu said the two sides should support each other on major issues, enhance law-enforcement cooperation to fight against terrorism, separatism and extremism, as well improve economic relations and cultural exchanges. Rakhmonov said he agreed with Hu's proposals. Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev visited China last month and the two sides signed a number of agreements to cement cooperation primarily in oil and natural gas as well as in other areas. Russia and Uzbekistan signed a strategic-partnership treaty, with Russian President Vladimir Putin and Uzbek President Islam Karimov hailing it as a new stage in long-term relations.
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is an intergovernmental international organization founded in Shanghai on 15 June 2001 by six countries: China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Its member states cover an area of over 30 million km2, or about three fifths of Eurasia, with a population of 1.455 billion, about a quarter of the world's total. Its working languages are Chinese and Russian.
SCO's predecessor, the Shanghai Five mechanism, originated and grew from the endeavor by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to strengthen confidence-building and disarmament in the border regions. In 1996 and 1997, their heads of state met in Shanghai and Moscow respectively and signed the Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions and the Treaty on Reduction of Military Forces in Border Regions. There after, this annual meeting became a regular practice and has been held alternately in the five member states. The topics of the meeting gradually extended from building up trust in the border regions to mutually beneficial cooperation in the political, security, diplomatic, economic, trade and other areas among the five states. The President of Uzbekistan was invited to the 2000 Dushanbe Summit as a guest of the host state. As the first meeting of the five heads of state took place in Shanghai, the cooperation mechanism was later known as the "Shanghai Five".
On the fifth anniversary of the Shanghai Five in June 2001, the heads of state of its members and the President of Uzbekistan met in Shanghai, the birthplace of the mechanism. First they signed a joint declaration admitting Uzbekistan as member of the Shanghai Five mechanism and then jointly issued the Declaration on the Establishment of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The document announced that for the purpose of upgrading the level of cooperation to more effectively seize opportunities and deal with new challenges and threats, the six states had decided to establish a Shanghai Cooperation Organization on the basis of the Shanghai Five mechanism.
In June 2002, the heads of SCO member states met in St. Petersburg and signed the SCO Charter, which clearly expounded the SCO purposes and principles, organizational structure, form of operation, cooperation, orientation and external relations, marking the actual establishment of this new organization in the sense of international law.
Iran appears increasingly interested in joining the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and form a powerful axis with its twin pillars, China and Russia, as a counterweight to a US power "unchained". The SCO was initially set up as an open and nonaligned organization and it was not initially targeted at a third party. Chinese Assistant Foreign Minister Li Hui said that the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) will not take in new members before its six members make serious studies. The organization is still very young and the six SCO members need to have further discussions before deciding whether or not to accept new members, Li said 01 June 2004. Mongolia's demand to participate in the organization as an 'observer' was approved at the June 2004 summit. Guidelines on the status of observer nations were approved and it was decided to award Mongolia this new status.
On 17 June 2004, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization held its annual Summit in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Attending this conference was Chinese President Hu Jintao, Russian President Vladimir Putin, Kyrgyzstan President Askar Akayev, Tajikistan President Emomali Rakhmonov, Kazakhstan President Nursultan Nazarbayev and Uzbekistan President Islam Karimov. Much of the pre-summit media attention included what Russian President Putin and Chinese President Hu hoped would facilitate the development of economic relations between the SCO countries. This appeared to have been successful. At the conclusion of the summit, the leaders signed a document titled the Tashkent Declaration. The declaration summarized the outcome of the SCO's work since it was set up, evaluated the activities of the organization's agencies and set new goals. They also signed agreements on cooperation in fighting drug trafficking and on the protection of secret information in the framework of the SCO anti-terrorist agency, whose headquarters were opened in Tashkent.
Several meetings were conducted on the sidelines of the Summit. Chinese President Hu Jintao met with Afghanistan Transitional President Hamid Karzai, who was a guest of Uzbek President Islam Karimov, and they discussed Afghanistan’s attempts to locate and bring to justice the terrorists who attacked Chinese workers there. In other meetings, Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev handed over to Hu Jintao a written document to confirm Kyrgyzstan's stance to recognize China' s full market economy status. Hu said the move by Kyrgyzstan will "greatly push forward China-Kyrgyzstan bilateral trade and economic cooperation." Hu made a four-point proposal in meeting with Tajik President Emomali Rakhmonov on strengthening cooperation. Hu said the two sides should support each other on major issues, enhance law-enforcement cooperation to fight against terrorism, separatism and extremism, as well improve economic relations and cultural exchanges. Rakhmonov said he agreed with Hu's proposals. Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev visited China last month and the two sides signed a number of agreements to cement cooperation primarily in oil and natural gas as well as in other areas. Russia and Uzbekistan signed a strategic-partnership treaty, with Russian President Vladimir Putin and Uzbek President Islam Karimov hailing it as a new stage in long-term relations.
Russia, China flex muscles in joint war games
Russia, China flex muscles in joint war games
By Guy Faulconbridge
CHEBARKUL, Russia (Reuters)
- Russia and China staged their biggest joint exercises on Friday but denied this show of military prowess could lead to the formation of a counterweight to NATO.
The war games were staged under the flag of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), a regional grouping that includes Russia, China and four Central Asian states.
Helicopters fly in formation at the Chebarkul range during the Peace Mission 2007 counter-terrorism exercise of Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states, August 17, 2007. (REUTERS/Sergei Karpukhin)Russian President Vladimir Putin, who watched the war games with Chinese President Hu Jintao, dismissed comparisons with the western North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).
"Today's exercises are another step towards strengthening the relations between our countries, a step towards strengthening international peace and security, and first and foremost, the security of our peoples," Putin said.
Fighter jets swooped overhead, commandos jumped from helicopters on to rooftops and the boom of artillery shells shook the firing range in Russia's Ural mountains as two of the largest armies in the world were put through their paces.
The exercises take place against a backdrop of mounting rivalry between the West, and Russia and China for influence over Central Asia, a strategic region that has huge oil, gas and mineral resources.
Russia's growing assertiveness is also causing jitters in the West. Putin announced at the firing range that Russia was resuming Soviet-era sorties by its strategic bomber aircraft near NATO airspace.
Helicopters fly in formation at the Chebarkul range during the Peace Mission 2007 counter-terrorism exercise of Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states, August 17, 2007. (REUTERS/Sergei Karpukhin
ANTI-INSURGENCY OPERATION
Commanders said the aim of the exercises -- involving 7,500 troops from SCO member states -- was to practise joint operations for putting down a militant uprising.
Moscow has been fighting a separatist insurgency in its southern Chechnya region while China says it is fighting Uighur Muslim rebels in its westerly province.
"I am convinced that the current exercise will definitely serve to stimulate the SCO to play a bigger role in the struggle against terrorism in the region," Hu said.
Asked by a reporter if the SCO was turning into a counter-balance to NATO, Putin said: "That is not the case."
"The military aspect is not dominant and not the main thing ... The SCO is an organisation that deals with questions of a political character and an economic character ... and the economic aspects are at the forefront," he said.
Marcel de Haas, an expert on security in ex-Soviet countries, said the war games, and the presence of SCO heads of state, was "another indication that they are slowly but surely working towards being a mutual security organisation".
"We cannot neglect them. We have to pay attention."
But the senior research fellow at the Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael said the SCO was unlikely to turn into an anti-Western club. "Russia wants to use the SCO for its anti-Western (aims) but the others will not allow it."
Building the alliance may be hindered by the ambiguous relations between Russia and China.
Moscow wants to supply energy to China's booming economy and sell its weapons to its military, but is also wary of Beijing's growing economic and military might.
By Guy Faulconbridge
CHEBARKUL, Russia (Reuters)
- Russia and China staged their biggest joint exercises on Friday but denied this show of military prowess could lead to the formation of a counterweight to NATO.
The war games were staged under the flag of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), a regional grouping that includes Russia, China and four Central Asian states.
Helicopters fly in formation at the Chebarkul range during the Peace Mission 2007 counter-terrorism exercise of Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states, August 17, 2007. (REUTERS/Sergei Karpukhin)Russian President Vladimir Putin, who watched the war games with Chinese President Hu Jintao, dismissed comparisons with the western North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).
"Today's exercises are another step towards strengthening the relations between our countries, a step towards strengthening international peace and security, and first and foremost, the security of our peoples," Putin said.
Fighter jets swooped overhead, commandos jumped from helicopters on to rooftops and the boom of artillery shells shook the firing range in Russia's Ural mountains as two of the largest armies in the world were put through their paces.
The exercises take place against a backdrop of mounting rivalry between the West, and Russia and China for influence over Central Asia, a strategic region that has huge oil, gas and mineral resources.
Russia's growing assertiveness is also causing jitters in the West. Putin announced at the firing range that Russia was resuming Soviet-era sorties by its strategic bomber aircraft near NATO airspace.
Helicopters fly in formation at the Chebarkul range during the Peace Mission 2007 counter-terrorism exercise of Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states, August 17, 2007. (REUTERS/Sergei KarpukhinANTI-INSURGENCY OPERATION
Commanders said the aim of the exercises -- involving 7,500 troops from SCO member states -- was to practise joint operations for putting down a militant uprising.
Moscow has been fighting a separatist insurgency in its southern Chechnya region while China says it is fighting Uighur Muslim rebels in its westerly province.
"I am convinced that the current exercise will definitely serve to stimulate the SCO to play a bigger role in the struggle against terrorism in the region," Hu said.
Asked by a reporter if the SCO was turning into a counter-balance to NATO, Putin said: "That is not the case."
"The military aspect is not dominant and not the main thing ... The SCO is an organisation that deals with questions of a political character and an economic character ... and the economic aspects are at the forefront," he said.
Marcel de Haas, an expert on security in ex-Soviet countries, said the war games, and the presence of SCO heads of state, was "another indication that they are slowly but surely working towards being a mutual security organisation".
"We cannot neglect them. We have to pay attention."
But the senior research fellow at the Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael said the SCO was unlikely to turn into an anti-Western club. "Russia wants to use the SCO for its anti-Western (aims) but the others will not allow it."
Building the alliance may be hindered by the ambiguous relations between Russia and China.
Moscow wants to supply energy to China's booming economy and sell its weapons to its military, but is also wary of Beijing's growing economic and military might.
Putin revives Russia's long-haul bomber flights
Putin revives Russia's long-haul bomber flights
By Guy Faulconbridge
CHEBARKUL, Russia (Reuters)
- President Vladimir Putin said on Friday security threats had forced Russia to revive the Soviet-era practice of sending bomber aircraft on regular patrols beyond its borders.
Putin said 14 strategic bombers had taken off simultaneously from airfields across Russia in the early hours of Friday on long-range missions.
A Tupolev TU-160 strategic bomber performs during the first day of the MAKS-2005 international air show in Zhukovsky outside Moscow August 16, 2005. President Vladimir Putin said on Friday security threats had forced Russia to revive the Soviet-era practice of sending bomber aircraft on regular patrols beyond its borders. (REUTERS/Viktor Korotayev)"We have decided to restore flights by Russian strategic aviation on a permanent basis," Putin told reporters after inspecting joint military exercises with China and four Central Asian states in Russia's Ural mountains.
"Today, August 17 at 00:00 hours, 14 strategic bombers took to the air from seven airfields across the country, along with support and refuelling aircraft ... From today such patrols will be carried out on a regular basis.
"We hope our partners will treat this with understanding."
At U.S. President George W. Bush's Texas ranch, White House spokesman Gordon Johndroe said he did not believe the flights posed a threat to the United States.
A Tupolev TU-160 strategic bomber performs during the first day of the MAKS-2005 international air show in Zhukovsky outside Moscow August 16, 2005. President Vladimir Putin said on Friday security threats had forced Russia to revive the Soviet-era practice of sending bomber aircraft on regular patrols beyond its borders. (REUTERS/Viktor Korotayev)
"Militaries around the world engage in a variety of activities, so this is not entirely surprising," he said.
But the sorties are likely to add to Western concern about Russia's growing assertiveness. That trend has prompted some U.S. policymakers to draw parallels with the Cold War.
Putin caused a stir this year by saying Russian missiles would once again be aimed at targets in Europe if Washington persisted with plans to build a missile defence shield in eastern Europe.
Russian diplomats have clashed with the United States and European governments on issues such as Kosovo, energy, and Moscow's treatment of its ex-Soviet neighbours.
"CHEST-POUNDING"
Western military leaders have said this year that Russian flights near their airspace were becoming more frequent after a long quiet period.
One Western defence official called the flights "a little bit of chest-pounding, trying to let people know Russia is back in the game".
Putin said that when Russia had cut its flights in 1992, other military powers had not reciprocated.
"Flights by other countries' strategic aircraft continue and this creates certain problems for ensuring the security of the Russian Federation," Putin said.
That appeared to be a swipe at the U.S. and NATO, whose strategic bombers have continued to fly long-range missions.
As Putin spoke to reporters and television cameras, four Russian military helicopters appeared and hovered in the background while Russian tanks trundled behind him, even though the exercises had ended long before.
During the Cold War, Russian long-range bombers, which can carry strategic nuclear weapons, played elaborate games of cat-and-mouse with Western air forces.
Earlier this month Russian air force generals said bomber crews had flown near the Pacific island of Guam, where the U.S. military has a base, and "exchanged smiles" with U.S. pilots scrambled to track them.
The Pentagon said the Russian aircraft had not come close enough to U.S. ships to prompt American aircraft to react.
In July, two Russian Tu-95 "Bear" bombers made unusually long sorties over the North Sea, leading Norway and Britain to scramble fighter jets to follow them. Russia's air force said later it was a routine flight.
(Additional reporting by Matt Spetalnick in Crawford, Texas)
By Guy Faulconbridge
CHEBARKUL, Russia (Reuters)
- President Vladimir Putin said on Friday security threats had forced Russia to revive the Soviet-era practice of sending bomber aircraft on regular patrols beyond its borders.
Putin said 14 strategic bombers had taken off simultaneously from airfields across Russia in the early hours of Friday on long-range missions.
A Tupolev TU-160 strategic bomber performs during the first day of the MAKS-2005 international air show in Zhukovsky outside Moscow August 16, 2005. President Vladimir Putin said on Friday security threats had forced Russia to revive the Soviet-era practice of sending bomber aircraft on regular patrols beyond its borders. (REUTERS/Viktor Korotayev)"We have decided to restore flights by Russian strategic aviation on a permanent basis," Putin told reporters after inspecting joint military exercises with China and four Central Asian states in Russia's Ural mountains.
"Today, August 17 at 00:00 hours, 14 strategic bombers took to the air from seven airfields across the country, along with support and refuelling aircraft ... From today such patrols will be carried out on a regular basis.
"We hope our partners will treat this with understanding."
At U.S. President George W. Bush's Texas ranch, White House spokesman Gordon Johndroe said he did not believe the flights posed a threat to the United States.
A Tupolev TU-160 strategic bomber performs during the first day of the MAKS-2005 international air show in Zhukovsky outside Moscow August 16, 2005. President Vladimir Putin said on Friday security threats had forced Russia to revive the Soviet-era practice of sending bomber aircraft on regular patrols beyond its borders. (REUTERS/Viktor Korotayev)"Militaries around the world engage in a variety of activities, so this is not entirely surprising," he said.
But the sorties are likely to add to Western concern about Russia's growing assertiveness. That trend has prompted some U.S. policymakers to draw parallels with the Cold War.
Putin caused a stir this year by saying Russian missiles would once again be aimed at targets in Europe if Washington persisted with plans to build a missile defence shield in eastern Europe.
Russian diplomats have clashed with the United States and European governments on issues such as Kosovo, energy, and Moscow's treatment of its ex-Soviet neighbours.
"CHEST-POUNDING"
Western military leaders have said this year that Russian flights near their airspace were becoming more frequent after a long quiet period.
One Western defence official called the flights "a little bit of chest-pounding, trying to let people know Russia is back in the game".
Putin said that when Russia had cut its flights in 1992, other military powers had not reciprocated.
"Flights by other countries' strategic aircraft continue and this creates certain problems for ensuring the security of the Russian Federation," Putin said.
That appeared to be a swipe at the U.S. and NATO, whose strategic bombers have continued to fly long-range missions.
As Putin spoke to reporters and television cameras, four Russian military helicopters appeared and hovered in the background while Russian tanks trundled behind him, even though the exercises had ended long before.
During the Cold War, Russian long-range bombers, which can carry strategic nuclear weapons, played elaborate games of cat-and-mouse with Western air forces.
Earlier this month Russian air force generals said bomber crews had flown near the Pacific island of Guam, where the U.S. military has a base, and "exchanged smiles" with U.S. pilots scrambled to track them.
The Pentagon said the Russian aircraft had not come close enough to U.S. ships to prompt American aircraft to react.
In July, two Russian Tu-95 "Bear" bombers made unusually long sorties over the North Sea, leading Norway and Britain to scramble fighter jets to follow them. Russia's air force said later it was a routine flight.
(Additional reporting by Matt Spetalnick in Crawford, Texas)
MCA Youth leader executed gangland-style
MCA Youth leader executed gangland-style
Regina William
KULIM (Aug 17, 2007):
A MCA Youth leader was executed gangland-style by a gunman who shot him in the head twice at a traffic lights junction here this morning.
Padang Serai MCA youth vice-chairman Ching Eng Wah had stopped his car at the junction at 8am when two men on a motorcycle pulled alongside his Mercedes Benz.
One of them whipped out a gun and shot point blank, killing Ching on the spot. Ching's wife, Lau Bee Kiau, 40, was seated on the front passenger's seat.
Lau was unhurt as the gunman and his accomplice fled immediately after the shooting.
Ching, who stays in Padang Serai, was rushed to the Metro Hospital in Sungai Petani but he was pronounced dead on arrival.
Police, who declined comment, have yet to make any arrests nor established the motive for the slaying.
Regina William
KULIM (Aug 17, 2007):
A MCA Youth leader was executed gangland-style by a gunman who shot him in the head twice at a traffic lights junction here this morning.
Padang Serai MCA youth vice-chairman Ching Eng Wah had stopped his car at the junction at 8am when two men on a motorcycle pulled alongside his Mercedes Benz.
One of them whipped out a gun and shot point blank, killing Ching on the spot. Ching's wife, Lau Bee Kiau, 40, was seated on the front passenger's seat.
Lau was unhurt as the gunman and his accomplice fled immediately after the shooting.
Ching, who stays in Padang Serai, was rushed to the Metro Hospital in Sungai Petani but he was pronounced dead on arrival.
Police, who declined comment, have yet to make any arrests nor established the motive for the slaying.
Ottoman History: 1301 - 1399
Ottoman History: 1301 - 1399
In 1301 Osman captured Yenisheheer and Youndhissar, making the former the capital of the territory. After besieging Iznick in 1303 and gaining numerous minor victories, he siezed the city of Brusa in 1326. Shortly afterwards, Osman Gazi died.
He was succeeded by his son Orkan Gazi (or Orkan Bey) who continued to extend the boundaries of the new country, adding Izmit and other places to his territories. Orkan gained a notable victory over a Byzantine army which attempted to lift the siege of Nice and added the principality of Karesi to his lands. Angora was regained from the Ahi Tribe and Cheembi Castle, Gallipoli, Bolayir, Malkara, Chorlou and Tekirdagh were added to Ottoman territories.
During the reign of Orkan Gazi coins were used for the first time in the Ottoman Empire. Orkan died in 1360, being succeeded by his son Amurath the First.
Amurath captured Chorlou and Lulebourgaz and regained Angore from the Ahi Tribe once more in 1363. His generals Evranos Bey and Jadji Ilbey annexed Malkara, Keshan, Ipsala, Dedeaghach and Dimetoka while Edirne, Philibe and Gumushhane were also taken.
The Crusader armies attacked Edirne but were defeated by Hadji Ilbey. After further victories the Bulgarian Kingdom was annexed to the Ottoman Empire and Amurath married Maria, the sister of the Bulgarian King.
After the Serbian Tribe was defeated in 1371 their leader acknowledged the overlordship of the Ottoman Empire and
agreed to pay 50 okkas of silver to the Sultan. He also agreed to send troops to fight for the Empire as and when needed. Following this victory Amurath returned to Brusa and married his son, Bayezid, to Solyman Shah's daughter, receiving Kutalya, Tavshanh, Simav and Emet as dowry.
Aksheheer, Karaaghach, Eghirdir and Hamidogllou were purchased from Hussein Bey and, in 1385, Ishtip, Monaster and Ohree were conquered by Timourtash Pasha. Sophia and Nish in Bulgaria became mandates of the Ottomans but there was a setback when the Kings of Serbia and Bosnia and the Princes of Albania and Crotia defeated Timourtash Pasha at Ploshnik with an army of 30,000 troops.
In an attempt to take advantage of this reversal, several European nations formed a Union of Crusaders, but before they could launch an assault the armies of the Ottoman Empire, under Ali Pasha, defeated the forces of the King of Bulgaria and the Prince of Dobroudja, thus preventing a Crusader attack. Amurath then passed on into Roumelia and in 1389 put the Crusaders to rout.
Tragically, Amurath was slain by a Serbian soldier after the battle and was succeeded by his son, Bayezid.
Tribes such as the Menteske and Hamid Oghoullari seized the opportunity to declare war on the Ottoman Empire but Bayezid the Yilderim (Lightning) quickly moved against them and put an end to their challenge. Beysheheer was ceeded to the Empire and peace was declared.
Sultan Bayezid Khan now besieged Istanbul, an action which led to a new Crusade. At the Battle of Nighbolou the Crusaders were utterly defeated and the siege of Istanbul continued. The Anatolian Castle was built and Bayezid, leaving the siege in the hands of the Vizier Ali Pasha, passed on to Anatolia and annexed Koniah. Burhanuddin and Malatia were also conquered.
While Bayezid was away, a fleet under the command of Boucicant raised the siege of Istanbul and regained the castles. Bayezid renewed the siege in 1400 but the invasion of Anatolia by Timour caused him to lift it again.
In 1301 Osman captured Yenisheheer and Youndhissar, making the former the capital of the territory. After besieging Iznick in 1303 and gaining numerous minor victories, he siezed the city of Brusa in 1326. Shortly afterwards, Osman Gazi died.
He was succeeded by his son Orkan Gazi (or Orkan Bey) who continued to extend the boundaries of the new country, adding Izmit and other places to his territories. Orkan gained a notable victory over a Byzantine army which attempted to lift the siege of Nice and added the principality of Karesi to his lands. Angora was regained from the Ahi Tribe and Cheembi Castle, Gallipoli, Bolayir, Malkara, Chorlou and Tekirdagh were added to Ottoman territories.
During the reign of Orkan Gazi coins were used for the first time in the Ottoman Empire. Orkan died in 1360, being succeeded by his son Amurath the First.
Amurath captured Chorlou and Lulebourgaz and regained Angore from the Ahi Tribe once more in 1363. His generals Evranos Bey and Jadji Ilbey annexed Malkara, Keshan, Ipsala, Dedeaghach and Dimetoka while Edirne, Philibe and Gumushhane were also taken.
The Crusader armies attacked Edirne but were defeated by Hadji Ilbey. After further victories the Bulgarian Kingdom was annexed to the Ottoman Empire and Amurath married Maria, the sister of the Bulgarian King.
After the Serbian Tribe was defeated in 1371 their leader acknowledged the overlordship of the Ottoman Empire and
agreed to pay 50 okkas of silver to the Sultan. He also agreed to send troops to fight for the Empire as and when needed. Following this victory Amurath returned to Brusa and married his son, Bayezid, to Solyman Shah's daughter, receiving Kutalya, Tavshanh, Simav and Emet as dowry.
Aksheheer, Karaaghach, Eghirdir and Hamidogllou were purchased from Hussein Bey and, in 1385, Ishtip, Monaster and Ohree were conquered by Timourtash Pasha. Sophia and Nish in Bulgaria became mandates of the Ottomans but there was a setback when the Kings of Serbia and Bosnia and the Princes of Albania and Crotia defeated Timourtash Pasha at Ploshnik with an army of 30,000 troops.
In an attempt to take advantage of this reversal, several European nations formed a Union of Crusaders, but before they could launch an assault the armies of the Ottoman Empire, under Ali Pasha, defeated the forces of the King of Bulgaria and the Prince of Dobroudja, thus preventing a Crusader attack. Amurath then passed on into Roumelia and in 1389 put the Crusaders to rout.
Tragically, Amurath was slain by a Serbian soldier after the battle and was succeeded by his son, Bayezid.
Tribes such as the Menteske and Hamid Oghoullari seized the opportunity to declare war on the Ottoman Empire but Bayezid the Yilderim (Lightning) quickly moved against them and put an end to their challenge. Beysheheer was ceeded to the Empire and peace was declared.
Sultan Bayezid Khan now besieged Istanbul, an action which led to a new Crusade. At the Battle of Nighbolou the Crusaders were utterly defeated and the siege of Istanbul continued. The Anatolian Castle was built and Bayezid, leaving the siege in the hands of the Vizier Ali Pasha, passed on to Anatolia and annexed Koniah. Burhanuddin and Malatia were also conquered.
While Bayezid was away, a fleet under the command of Boucicant raised the siege of Istanbul and regained the castles. Bayezid renewed the siege in 1400 but the invasion of Anatolia by Timour caused him to lift it again.
Ottoman History: 1281 - 1299
Ottoman History: 1281 - 1299
The founder of the Ottoman Empire, Osman Gazi (or, as he is known, Osman Khan or Osman Bey) was descended from a line of great leaders who had, in turn, led the Kayi Tribe, the most famous of all the 24 Turkish tribes.
Osman Khan's father, Ertoghrul Gazi, had been appointed Uchbey on the Byzantine Frontier by the Seljukian Sultan, Alauddin. The land was given to him to control and lay along the boundaries of Brusa, Kutahya and Biledjik. Ertoghrul Gazi captured the town of Saegut from the Byzantine Empire and made it the capital city of the region. The duties of the Uchbey were to defend the frontiers of the Empire and to fight against the attacks of the Crusader Knights.
On the death of Ertoghrul Gazi in 1281, his son Osman Gazi, despite being the youngest member of his family, was elected Uchbey to succeed his father.
Osman Gazi, through a clever mixture of diplomacy and warfare, gained large tracts of land from the neighboring Byzantine Emperors. Faced by an alliance of the Byzantine Emperors of Brusa and Nice on the one hand, and Yarhisar and Karadjahisar on the other, Osman Gazi declared war. He attacked Nice and in 1291 captured Karadjahisar. He changed the Castle Church into a mosque and assigned a judge to rule the area.
After further victories at Biledjik and Yarhisar in 1299 he married his son, Orkan Gazi, to the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor of Yarhisar.
In 1299 Osman Gazi declared independence, granting fiefs to his Moslem army veterans and appointing wardens, judges and magistrates to take charge of castles and strong points.
The founder of the Ottoman Empire, Osman Gazi (or, as he is known, Osman Khan or Osman Bey) was descended from a line of great leaders who had, in turn, led the Kayi Tribe, the most famous of all the 24 Turkish tribes.
Osman Khan's father, Ertoghrul Gazi, had been appointed Uchbey on the Byzantine Frontier by the Seljukian Sultan, Alauddin. The land was given to him to control and lay along the boundaries of Brusa, Kutahya and Biledjik. Ertoghrul Gazi captured the town of Saegut from the Byzantine Empire and made it the capital city of the region. The duties of the Uchbey were to defend the frontiers of the Empire and to fight against the attacks of the Crusader Knights.
On the death of Ertoghrul Gazi in 1281, his son Osman Gazi, despite being the youngest member of his family, was elected Uchbey to succeed his father.
Osman Gazi, through a clever mixture of diplomacy and warfare, gained large tracts of land from the neighboring Byzantine Emperors. Faced by an alliance of the Byzantine Emperors of Brusa and Nice on the one hand, and Yarhisar and Karadjahisar on the other, Osman Gazi declared war. He attacked Nice and in 1291 captured Karadjahisar. He changed the Castle Church into a mosque and assigned a judge to rule the area.
After further victories at Biledjik and Yarhisar in 1299 he married his son, Orkan Gazi, to the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor of Yarhisar.
In 1299 Osman Gazi declared independence, granting fiefs to his Moslem army veterans and appointing wardens, judges and magistrates to take charge of castles and strong points.
The Ottoman Dynasty-Intro
The Ottoman dynasty was the longest lasting dynasty in the world - 641 years. In addition, the Ottoman Sultans had been Caliph of the Islamic world for 407 years; from 1516 when Selim Khan obtained the title, to 1924 when that dignity was abrogated. However, as both the Caliphacy and the sultanate ceased to function at times, it could be said that the Ottoman Caliphacy continued for 393 years, finishing at the point in time when Sultan Abdulhamid was dethroned. He had been the 98th Caliph (beginning with His Exalted Highness Abu Bakr).
Most of the Ottoman Sultans were craftsmen of one type or another. Some were poets, some calligraphers, athletes and carpenters. The poets were:
Amurath the Second, Mehmed the Conqueror, Bayezid the Lightning, Selim the Excellent, Suleyman the Legislator, Selim the Second, Amurath the Third, Mahomed the Third, Ahmed the First, Osman the Second, Amurath the Fourth, Mahmoud the First, Abdul Hamid the First, Selim the Third, Mahmoud the Second, Abdulaziz, Amurath the; Fifth and Mehmed Reshad.
Some of the calligraphers were - Ahmed the First, Osman the Second, Mahmoud the First and Moustafa the Fourth.
Apart from these, Suleyman the Magnificent was a goldsmith and Abdul Hamid an archer and bowman of great skill.
The longest ruling Sultan was Suleyman the Great, who reigned for 46 years, whilst the shortest reign was that of Amurath the Fifth - a period of just three months.
The 14th Sultan, Ahmed the First, reigned for 14 years. Sultan Abdulhamid II, the 33rd Emperor, reigned for exactly 33 years, and the 17th Sultan, Amurath the Fourth, ruled for 17 years.
From the founding of the great Ottoman Empire in 1299 until it was dissolved in 1922, 623 years passed. The Ottoman Emperors were usually called Padishah and rarely Hunkar or Sultan. Since August 29th, 1516 they were also called Calipha, being the greatest of the Moslem leaders.
The Sultan had to come from the Ottoman family and had total control of the country. To begin with, the eldest son of an Emperor was made Sultan but this honour passed to the eldest person in the family. Ottoman princes were given the title "Shaykh Zade", while princesses were called "Sultana". The mother of a Sultan was called "Walide Sultana" and the Sultan's wives were termed, at first, Haseki and later "Qadin Effendi".
Every Friday in the mosques Houtbes (sermons) were read in the name of the current Sultan. The dynasty colour of the Ottomans was red, while seven or nine aigrettes were taken for the Sultans. In addition, grand viziers, viziers and governor generals had five and Sandjack Beys obtained one.
Anything belonging to the Sultans was given the title Royal (Humayoun) or Imperial (Shakane).
The Turkish Emperors were crowned at the Mosque of Eyub on the first Friday of the sultanate.
The Sultan's palaces were called Saray-i Humayoun, the Palace of Topkapi being constructed on a plot of 700 acres and housing 40,000 people. Other famous palaces were the Imperial Palace of Edirne, Dolmabahche Palace and the Yildiz Palace. For over 405 years, from July 25th, 1518 until March 3rd, 1924, the Holy Qur'an was perpetually recited, day and night, in the Department of Mohammed's Cloak in the Topkapi Palace. The women of the palace lived in the Haram. The palace kitchen was called Matbakh Amire.
"Ottomans are extremely obedient to the principles of morality, honesty and honour, as mentioned in the Holy Qur'an. Social relations and orderliness among them depend on sincerity and compassion. They do not find it necessary to make written contracts between themselves as do people in other countries. Good will and a person's word solve every problem - Ottoman Turks are captives of their promises. They act this way not only to their compatriots but also to foreigners, regardless of their religion. It makes no difference whether people are Muslims or any other religion in respect of keeping their promises and they regard illegal profit as dishonest and against their religion. They sincerely believe that any fortune acquired this way makes one unhappy both in this world and the next."
Marco Polo said that Turkish women were the most chaste and decent in the world and Vembery stated that there were no words such as Fahishe (whore) and Pich (illegitimate child) in the old Turkish language. Such words had been taken from the Persian language.
Self esteem and haughtiness are regarded as characteristics of the Devil and a great statesman who is inordinately proud shows that he is not worthy of his position. In Ottoman ceremonies or processions officials shouted at the Sultan and all of the high officials "Never be proud of yourself. Allah is the only one to be glorified".
Respect for older people who have achieved high position, has been an unchanging Turkish tradition. Parents are to be respected, as are elder sisters and brothers. An elder brother has always been called Aghabei while an elder sister is given the name Abla and it is an insult to call them anything else. No older person is ever called by his or her actual name in Turkey.
Anyone who dies without carrying out a charitable deed was regarded as less than human, and as such, great many mosques (Masajid), fountains and all sorts of architectural works can be found - not counting military establishments - having been built as works of philanthropy during the Imperial era.
Turks are dignified, serious, sedate and humble. They hate noise and are never rowdy or boisterous. They like peace and tranquility, rarely reveal their emotions and regard boasting as shameful. Culture is essential to the Turk, as are courtesy and respect of womanhood.
(from "The Civiliation of the Ottomans" by Yilmaz Oztuna)
Most of the Ottoman Sultans were craftsmen of one type or another. Some were poets, some calligraphers, athletes and carpenters. The poets were:
Amurath the Second, Mehmed the Conqueror, Bayezid the Lightning, Selim the Excellent, Suleyman the Legislator, Selim the Second, Amurath the Third, Mahomed the Third, Ahmed the First, Osman the Second, Amurath the Fourth, Mahmoud the First, Abdul Hamid the First, Selim the Third, Mahmoud the Second, Abdulaziz, Amurath the; Fifth and Mehmed Reshad.
Some of the calligraphers were - Ahmed the First, Osman the Second, Mahmoud the First and Moustafa the Fourth.
Apart from these, Suleyman the Magnificent was a goldsmith and Abdul Hamid an archer and bowman of great skill.
The longest ruling Sultan was Suleyman the Great, who reigned for 46 years, whilst the shortest reign was that of Amurath the Fifth - a period of just three months.
The 14th Sultan, Ahmed the First, reigned for 14 years. Sultan Abdulhamid II, the 33rd Emperor, reigned for exactly 33 years, and the 17th Sultan, Amurath the Fourth, ruled for 17 years.
From the founding of the great Ottoman Empire in 1299 until it was dissolved in 1922, 623 years passed. The Ottoman Emperors were usually called Padishah and rarely Hunkar or Sultan. Since August 29th, 1516 they were also called Calipha, being the greatest of the Moslem leaders.
The Sultan had to come from the Ottoman family and had total control of the country. To begin with, the eldest son of an Emperor was made Sultan but this honour passed to the eldest person in the family. Ottoman princes were given the title "Shaykh Zade", while princesses were called "Sultana". The mother of a Sultan was called "Walide Sultana" and the Sultan's wives were termed, at first, Haseki and later "Qadin Effendi".
Every Friday in the mosques Houtbes (sermons) were read in the name of the current Sultan. The dynasty colour of the Ottomans was red, while seven or nine aigrettes were taken for the Sultans. In addition, grand viziers, viziers and governor generals had five and Sandjack Beys obtained one.
Anything belonging to the Sultans was given the title Royal (Humayoun) or Imperial (Shakane).
The Turkish Emperors were crowned at the Mosque of Eyub on the first Friday of the sultanate.
The Sultan's palaces were called Saray-i Humayoun, the Palace of Topkapi being constructed on a plot of 700 acres and housing 40,000 people. Other famous palaces were the Imperial Palace of Edirne, Dolmabahche Palace and the Yildiz Palace. For over 405 years, from July 25th, 1518 until March 3rd, 1924, the Holy Qur'an was perpetually recited, day and night, in the Department of Mohammed's Cloak in the Topkapi Palace. The women of the palace lived in the Haram. The palace kitchen was called Matbakh Amire.
"Ottomans are extremely obedient to the principles of morality, honesty and honour, as mentioned in the Holy Qur'an. Social relations and orderliness among them depend on sincerity and compassion. They do not find it necessary to make written contracts between themselves as do people in other countries. Good will and a person's word solve every problem - Ottoman Turks are captives of their promises. They act this way not only to their compatriots but also to foreigners, regardless of their religion. It makes no difference whether people are Muslims or any other religion in respect of keeping their promises and they regard illegal profit as dishonest and against their religion. They sincerely believe that any fortune acquired this way makes one unhappy both in this world and the next."
Marco Polo said that Turkish women were the most chaste and decent in the world and Vembery stated that there were no words such as Fahishe (whore) and Pich (illegitimate child) in the old Turkish language. Such words had been taken from the Persian language.
Self esteem and haughtiness are regarded as characteristics of the Devil and a great statesman who is inordinately proud shows that he is not worthy of his position. In Ottoman ceremonies or processions officials shouted at the Sultan and all of the high officials "Never be proud of yourself. Allah is the only one to be glorified".
Respect for older people who have achieved high position, has been an unchanging Turkish tradition. Parents are to be respected, as are elder sisters and brothers. An elder brother has always been called Aghabei while an elder sister is given the name Abla and it is an insult to call them anything else. No older person is ever called by his or her actual name in Turkey.
Anyone who dies without carrying out a charitable deed was regarded as less than human, and as such, great many mosques (Masajid), fountains and all sorts of architectural works can be found - not counting military establishments - having been built as works of philanthropy during the Imperial era.
Turks are dignified, serious, sedate and humble. They hate noise and are never rowdy or boisterous. They like peace and tranquility, rarely reveal their emotions and regard boasting as shameful. Culture is essential to the Turk, as are courtesy and respect of womanhood.
(from "The Civiliation of the Ottomans" by Yilmaz Oztuna)
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